Issued July i£7.iyow. 


0S3 


U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS—BULLETIN 200. 

A, C. TkUE, Director. 





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Ay 11 



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BY 


MARGARET J. MITCHELL, 

• Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Induatrn, 1‘hilaib l[Ian, Pa. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT printing OFFICE. 

19 0*8. 








Class_ T ft 3 3 

Book_ •M L — 


















































































1083 


Issued July 27,1908. 


U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

\ 

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS—BULLETIN 200. 

A. C. TRUE, Director. 



AND THEIR PREPARATION, 



BY 

MARGARET J. MITCHELL, 

I 4 

Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry, Philadelphia, Pa. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

a/ 


1908 . 











THE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

STAFF. 

A. C. Truk, Ph. I>., So. I)., Director. 

E. W. Allen, Ph. I).. Assistant Director ami Editor of Experiment Station 
Record. 

John Hamilton, It. S., M. S. A., Fanners' Institute Specialist. 

( 2 ) 


JUI 31 1908 
D. ot 0.. 


« # 
••• 





LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 


U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Office of Experiment Stations, 
Washington, D. C., March 16 , 1908. 

Sir: I have the honor to submit and to recommend for publication 
as Bulletin 200 of this Oflicc a Course in Cereal Foods and Their 
Preparation, for use in movable schools of agriculture, prepared hv 
M iss Margaret J. Mitchell of the Drexel Institute of Art, Science, 
and Industry, Philadelphia, Pa., under the supervision of C. F. Lang- 
worthy, expert in food and nutrition of this Office. The intent of the 
projected series of courses of which this is the third is to provide more 
extended and specific instruction in agriculture and household econ¬ 
omy than is now being given outside of regularly organized schools. 
The value of such instruction and the practicability of imparting it 
in the manner proposed has been clearly demonstrated in foreign 
countries. 

In this bulletin an attempt has been made to reduce the subject 
of cereal foods to pedagogical form, and it is therefore hoped that 
the course submitted will aid in extending knowledge of the princi¬ 
ples that underlie the science of nutrition as related to the proper 
selection and preparation of cereal foods for human consumption. 

Respectfully, 

lion. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

( 3 ) 


A. C. True, Director. 






CON T E N T S. 


Page. 

Prefatory note. 9 

General suggestions to teachers. 10 

Syllabus of a course of lectures on cereal foods and their preparation. 12 

First lecture—The composition of vegetable foods. 12 

Explanation of terms. 12 

Chemical composition of the nutrients. 12 

Analyzing foods to show their nutrients. 13 

Experiment and practice work, first lecture. 14 

Analysis of a potato. 14 

Analysis of flour. 14 

Analysis of peas or beans.. . 15 

Second lecture—Composition of the body and the uses of food compounds 

in the body. 16 

Composition of the body. 16 

Uses of food. 16 

Heat of combustion. 17 

Nutrients furnished by vegetable foods. 17 

Fitting of foods to needs of the body. 17 

Experiment and practice work, second lecture. 18 

A study of bone. 18 

A study of fat.... 18 

A study of muscle. 18 

Balanced menus. 19 

Third lecture—Digestion, assimilation, excretion. 19 

Exj>eriment and practice work, third lecture. 22 

A study of the organs of digestion in a fowl. 22 

Illustrations of digestive processes. 22 

Fourth lecture—A study of starch. 24 

Structure. 24 

Chemical characteristics. 25 

Changes during cooking. 25 

Food value. 26 

Digestibility. 26 

Experiment and practice work, fourth lecture. 26 

Sources of starch. 26 

Microscopical examination of starch. 27 

Chemical properties of starch. 27 

Methods of preventing starch from becoming lumpy while cook¬ 
ing . 28 

Fifth lecture—Cereals used as breakfast foods. 28 

Composition of cereals. 28 

Comparison of cooked cereal foods and certain other foods. 29 

Digestibility. 29 

Comparison of digestible protein of cooked cereals and beef. 29 

Preparation. 30 


( 5 ) 














































G 


Syllabus <>f a course of lectures on cereal f* k k!h and their preparation—Cont’d. 
Fifth lecture—Cereals used as breakfast foods—Continued. 

Cooking. 

Cost... 

Homemade breakfast foods. 

Experiment and practice work, fifth lecture . 

Proportion of ingredients and time of cooking cereal breakfast 

foods. 

I*roportion of ingredients and time of cooking cereal breakfast 

foods in hay box. 

Measuring. 

Making a hay box. 

Hominy mush. 

Rolled oats. 

Wheat breakfast food. 

Food value of cereals. 

Sixth lecture—Cereals which are used as vegetables. 

Corn. 

Macaroni. 

Rice. 

Cooking rice. 

Ex|>eriment and practice work, sixth lecture. 

Steamed rice. 

Turkish Pilaf. 

Boiled rice. 

Poor man’s rice pudding. . 

Baked macaroni and cheese. 

Planning menus containing cereals. 

Seventh lecture—Bread. 

The ingredients. 

The process of making bread. 

Experiment and practice work, seventh lecture. 

The ingredients of bread and the effect of varying them. 

Detailed process of making bread. 

Calculating the nutrients in bread from various materials. 

To prove what gas is formed during the rising process. 

Eighth lecture—Yeast and molds. 

What is yeast?. 

Requirements for growth. 

Conditions that aff«*ct fermentation. 

Commercial manufacture of yeast. 

Compressed yeast. 

Dry yeast. 

Homemade yeast. 

Salt rising bread. . 

Molds. 

Experiment and practice work, eighth lecture. 

The growth of yeast. 

Hop and potato yeast. 

Wild yeast “ einptins”. 

Dry yeast. 

Oatmeal muffins.. 

Ninth lecture—A study of wheat flour. 

Structure . 

Composition. 


31 

31 

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IS 
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IS 
IS 

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1 1 
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7 


Syllabus of a course of lectures on cereal foods and their preparation—ContVl. 
Ninth lecture—A study of wheat flour—Continued. 

Variations in wheat. 

Milling. 

Varieties and grades of flours. 

Digestibility of different flours. 

Bread-making qualities of flours. 

Experiment and practice work, ninth lecture. 

Household tests for the quality of wheat flour. 

Extracting gliadin from flour. 

Graham bread. 

Egg toast. 

Bread with potato yeast. 

Rolls. 

Entire-wheat bread. 

Salt rising bread. 

Gluten wafers. 

Tenth lecture—A study of rye, corn, buckwheat, and other flours. 

Rye. 

Corn meal and flour. 

Buckwheat. 

Other meals used in bread making. 

Experiment and practice work, tenth lecture. 

Rye flour. 

Rye bread. 

Corn meal breads. 

Buckwheat cakes. 

Bread puddings. 

Eleventh lecture—Changes produced in the constituents of bread. 

Changes during rising. 

Short process v. long process. 

Changes which take place during baking. 

Stale bread. 

Uses to which stale bread may be put. 

Care of bread. 

Experiment and practice work, eleventh lecture. 

Freshening stale bread. 

Stale bread muffins. 

Stale bread griddle cakes. 

Indian pudding. 

Care of bread box or crock. 

Study of molds. 

Twelfth lecture—Cost of bread, causes of imperfections, fancy breads_ 

Experiment ami practice work, twelfth lecture. 

Cost of bread compared with other foods. 

Buns. 

Recipe for buns. 

Cinnamon buns. 

Bread made with stale bread. 

Thirteenth lecture—Bread raised by other agents than yeast. 

Gas obtained by the use of chemicals. 

Acids and soda. 

Carbonate of ammonia. 

Baking powders. 

Substitutes for baking powders. 


Page. 

48 

48 

48 

49 

50 
50 

50 

51 

51 

52 
52 
52 
52 

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53 
53 
53 

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62 
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as 

64 

64 

65 






















































8 


Syllabus of a course «»f lectures on cereal bawls ami their prejiaration—foot’d. 

Thirteenth lecture—Bread raised by other agents than yeast—Cont’d. !*•««. 

Bread raised bv air. 66 

w 

Experiment and practice work, thirteenth lecture. 06 

Effect of acid on soda. 66 

Household teat for adulteration of baking powder with an excess 

of starch. 67 

Test for the efficiency of various baking powders. 67 

Biscuit. 67 

Maryland beaten biscuit. 67 

Fourteenth lecture—Cooking in deep fat. 68 

The fat used. 68 

The tein|>erature..- 68 

Preparation of food for frying. 68 

Caramel izat ion. 69 

Experiment and practice work, fourteenth lecture. 09 

Tests for the temj*»ratnre of fat.. . 69 

Preparing crumlw for fried food. 69 

Using dry crumbs for homemade cereal foot!. 69 

Raised doughnuts. 69 

Doughnuts with baking powder. 70 

Rice croquettes. 70 

Fifteenth lecture—Dough raised with (*ggs. Icing for cake. 70 

Sponge cakes. 70 

Butter cakes. 70 

Cookies. 71 

General rules for making cake. 71 

Frostings or icings and fillings. 72 

Experiment and practice work, fifteenth lecture. 72 

Sponge cakes. 72 

Butter rakes.. 73 

Frost ings. 73 

Appendix. 74 

References. 74 

List of apparatus and materials needed. 76 






































PREFATORY NOT]-;. 


This Course in Cereal Foods and Their Preparation, by Miss 
Margaret J. Mitchell, of the Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and 
Industry, Philadelphia, Pa., is the third of a series which is being 
issued by the Office of Experiment Stations upon various agricultural 
and domestic science subjects for use by farmers’ institute workers in 
giving instruction in movable schools of agriculture. 

The course as outlined consists of fifteen lectures, accompanied by 
an equal number of practice exercises, and a list of publications in¬ 
tended to be consulted by the students in looking up the references 
indicated in the several lectures. There is likewise a list of apparatus 
and material needed in giving instruction together with the price of 
each item. Each lecture is intended to occupy about one hour in its 
delivery. The students are not expected to take notes, but at the close 
of the lecture a syllabus embracing the points considered, and contain¬ 
ing references to authorities which the student is expected to consult 
before the practice exercise is taken up, will be handed to each mem¬ 
ber of the class. 

The movable school plan consists in the formation of classes of not 
less than eight nor more than fifteen persons who are over 18 years of 
age, and who are interested in the subject of which the course treats. 
The teaching force should consist of one, or at most of two, instruct- 
ors who are experts in the subject which they present. Through this 
instrumentality it is believed that it will be possible to educate in one 
or more specialties ten or twelve persons in each community who will 
be well fitted for conducting special lines of work and eventually 
become experts and sources of information and aid to others. The 
introduction of courses of this character is intended to supplement the 
present method of institute work, and will, it is believed, round out 
the system of institute instruction, provide for its logical expansion, 
and furnish employment to skilled teachers throughout the entire 
year. 

John Hamilton, 
Farmers' Institute Specialist. 


( 9 ) 








COURSE IN CEREAL FOODS FOR MOVABLE 
SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE. 


GENERAL SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

The attempt has been made in the lectures outlined in this bulletin 
to cover the subject in as complete a manner as possible. As a con¬ 
sequence the teacher will probably find that in no case can the lectures 
be used in their entirety, but must be adapted both in amount and 
in character of instruction to the varying needs and capacities of 
different classes. It is especially important that no more of the pre¬ 
liminary scientific explanations and definitions shall be undertaken 
than the students are able to comprehend thoroughly or may be con¬ 
sidered absolutely necessary to an understanding of the more prac¬ 
tical operations which are discussed in later lectures. 

Try to impress principles and not be content with the mere 
presentation of facts. In asking review questions be careful not to 
ask too many that can be answered by a mere repetition of facts 
learned, but ask those which can be answered only if the student 
has really understood and assimilated the knowledge. When possi¬ 
ble, get the students to name other facts that illustrate the princi¬ 
ples taught. Encourage the pupils to try other experiments than 
those suggested, if questions arise that might be answered by such 
experiments. 

Each student should have a notebook and keep a full record of the 
experiments performed and the practice work done. This is an im¬ 
portant part of the work, and the lecturer, by frequently examining 
the books, may be able to help the student to make the record clear 
and correct. Have all the work done by every student, as processes 
which the students have themselves carried out will be better remem¬ 
bered than those which have been merelv observed. 

V 

The numbers in the text in parentheses refer to corresponding num¬ 
bers in the list of books of reference in the Appendix. This list of 
books should be considered more or less elastic. Foods and the prin¬ 
ciples of nutrition are being studied to such an extent that in a short 
time there may be valuable data bearing on the subject that are not 
yet published. In order to keep abreast of the times the lecturer 

(ID 



12 


will find, in addition to a constant use* of libraries where they are 
within reach, that the Kxperiment Station Record will In* of assist¬ 
ance with its monthly report of the work published by the various 
experiment station workers and other investigators. The reference 
list may be added to as new material appears which proves of value 
in such a course. 

The exact quantity of food materials used as illustrative material 
in the lessons will depend upon the method of presenting the subject. 
In the list of materials and apparatus given in the Appendix the 
quantity estimated as a minimum required for a class of eight students 
is given. Where there are larger classes and each pupil performs 
much or all of the work the list will have to be modified. 


SYLLABUS OF A COURSE OF LECTURES ON CEREAL FOODS AND 

THEIR PREPARATION. 

FIRST LECTURE—THE COMPOSITION OF CEREAL AND OTHER 

VEGETABLE FOODS. 


EXPLANATION OF TEH MS. 


Ordinary foods, such as cereal grains, meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, 
etc., consist of (1) refuse, such as bran of wheat, bones of meat and 
fish, shells of shellfish and eggs, skin of potatoes, etc.; and (2) edible 
portion, such as flour or meal, the flesh of meat and fish, whites and 
yolks of eggs, inside of the potato, etc. The edible portion consists 
of (a) water and (/>) nutritious substances or nutrients. There are 
four classes of nutrients, each of which varies considerably in appear¬ 
ance, taste, and behavior. These are called protein, fats, carbohy¬ 
drates, and mineral matters or ash. (References No. 23, p. 1; No. 
21, pp. 72, 73; No. 24. p. 14.) The water and nutrients are some¬ 
times called food principles. 


CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE NUTRIENTS. 

The nutrients are unlike each other because they are (1) composed 
of different substances, just as bread and meat-loaf are different lx*- 
cause composed of different substances, or (2) because the same sub¬ 
stances are combined in different proportions, as, for example, cake 
and muffins are unlike, though containing the same ingredients. The 
materials of which the nutrients are composed are called chemical 
elements. (Reference No. 24, p. 5.) 

Protein is composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
nitrogen, and sulphur. The fact that protein contains nitrogen gives 
it an importance as food, since nitrogen is an element essential to the 
body for formation, growth, and repair, and protein is the only food 
principle that will supply it. 


13 


Carbohydrates, including sugars and starches, are composed of the 
elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are different kinds 
ol sugar, such as cane sugar, milk sugar, etc., but all are composed of 
the same elements and have in general like properties. The starches, 
which are characteristic constituents of all cereals, include a wide 
variety, such as cornstarch, potato starch, wheat starch, etc., but all 
are composed of the same elements and chemically are closely related 
to the sugars. 

Fats, including not only the fat of animals but also butter fat and 
the many oils found in vegetable foods, are also composed of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, but in a different proportion from that found 
in carbohydrates. 

The mineral matters of food are composed of a number of different 
elements, among which are potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, 
phosphorus, sulphur, and iron. (Reference No. 24, p. 0.) 


ANALYZING FOODS TO SHOW THEIR NUTRIENTS. 

These different food principles can be separated from one another, 
some of them quite easily. 

(1) Water .—Foods containing much water will appear wet and 
water can be squeezed out of them. Where only a little water is 
present it can be detected by heating the food so that the water will 
turn to steam or vapor and will pass out in that form. If foods are 
allowed to dry, the loss of weight will indicate that water was present 
and had evaporated. 

(2) Starch .—If foods are grated or ground up and washed with 
cold water, starch, if present, will appear. It does not dissolve in 
water, so the grains will be floated out from the food. They are 
small enough to pass through thin muslin and can be separated by 
this means from the other coarser particles. 

If starch be added to boiling water it will change in appearance. 
Instead of being an opaque, white powder it will become clear and the 
water will be thickened. This is one test for the presence of starch. 
If a drop of tincture of iodin be added to cooked starch it will be 
turned a deep blue color. This will not take place under ordinary 
circumstances unless starch is present, so that it also constitutes a 
test for starch. 

(3) Protein .—Protein is a name applied to a group of compounds 
of which nitrogen is the most important constituent. White (albu¬ 
min) of eggs, gluten of wheat, and lean meat are familiar examples 
of such compounds. All the bodies of the protein group are turned 
yellow by the addition of concentrated nitric acid, the color being 
intensified by boilimr- Other tests show similar characteristics com- 
mon to all the compounds of this group and they may be considered 
as belonging to one class of food principles. 


14 


The protein of wheat flour (gluten) will form a sticky, elastic mass 
if wet with water, and the other material can then l>e washed away 
from it so that it will be seen by itself. The protein of some other 
foods, such as eggs, peas, beans, etc., can be dissolved by water or 
chemicals and strained out, and then coagulated by heat, or rendered 
solid by adding some other chemical to the solution. Other experi¬ 
ments with protein compounds are given in Lecture 3, p. 23. 

(4) /Sugar .—The presence of sugar can be shown by a chemical 
test in which a change of color takes place if sugar or any food con¬ 
taining sugar is examined. (Lecture 3, Experiment 11 (A).) 

(5) Fats. —Fat, when present in large quantities, can be melted 
out of food. 

((i) Mineral matter .—Mineral matter can be shown by burning 
foods. The ash that remains is the mineral portion. 


EXI’KRIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, 


FIRST LECTl'RE. 


Analysis of a Potato. 

Material8 needed .—For each student or for every two students one 
potato, one grater, a piece of cheese cloth 10 by 10 inches, a small 
saucepan, water, a 6-inch test tube, a label for the test tube, tincture 
of iodin, salt, sugar, and cornstarch. 

Experiment 1 .—Analyze a potato according to the directions in 
Reference No. 31, pp. 61, 62. Is there water in potatoes? What 
proved it? The residue left in the cheese cloth is called cellulose or 
crude fiber. Is it soluble? Dry and save some of the starch in a 
test tube marked “ potato starch ” to use in Experiment 14. 


Analysis of Flour. 

Experiment 2. (A) Materials needed .—One one-half pint beaker, 

one test tube, Bunsen burner or smokeless flame, copper gauze 6 by 6 
inches, cotton for plugging the test tube, bread flour, unground wheat, 
cheese cloth 10 by 10 inches square, a knife, bowl of cold water, test 
tube and label, tincture of iodin, funnel, filter paper, vinegar, and 
concentrated nitric acid. 

Exercise .—Fill a beaker half full of water. Put it on a piece of 
copper gauze over a Bunsen flame. The flame does not pass through 
the gauze, so there is little danger of breaking the glass. Fill a 6-inch 
test tube about one-third full of flour and cork it. Set this into the 
water and allow all to heat gradually until the water boils. Leave it 
in the water for five minutes, then take out the test tube, dry the out¬ 
side, and notice the drops that have condensed on the inside of the 
tube. Does flour contain water? 

(B) Materials needed .—Bread flour, small mixing bowl, small 
piece of cheese cloth, and large mixing bowl. 


15 


Exercise. —To about one-half cupful of bread flour add sufficient 
water to form a stiff dough and allow it to stand one-half hour. 
Place the dough in a piece of cheese cloth and work it gently with the 
fingers in a bowl of water. Continue this for several minutes and 
then hold the cloth and contents under a stream of running water. 
Continue working it until the water runs clear. Open the cloth and 
scrape together the contents. Work this a little in the fingers until it 
adheres together and becomes elastic. Stretch it like rubber, press it 
down over the end of a finger like a glove. This substance is called 
gluten. Is gluten soluble in water? Notice its color. Add a little 
dilute nitric acid to some familiar proteid, such as white of egg, and 
boil it in a test tube. Do the same with a little gluten. Is the color 
produced the same in both cases? Add nitric acid to a little starch 
and boil it. Have egg albumin and gluten properties in common? 
Of what food principle do you think gluten is an example? Chew 
some wheat until a gum-like mass is obtained. Has it the same prop¬ 
erties as the gluten obtained from the flour? 

(C) Allow the water in which the flour was washed to stand five 
minutes or more. Carefully pour away the water and save it to use 
in Exercise 1). Examine the sediment. What color is it ? Is it 
soluble in water? Add a little water to the sediment and stir over 
the fire until it boils. What change takes place in its appearance? 
Add a drop of iodin to a little of it. What do you think it must be? 
Dry a little of it and save it in a labeled test tube to use in Experi¬ 
ment 19. 

(D) Filter the water in which the flour was first washed and heat 
the filtrate in a test tube. If albumin is present it will become coagu¬ 
lated with heat. Filter off any coagulated material and test it with 
nitric acid. 

(E) Add to the filtrate left from Exercise I) a little vinegar. 
Another precipitate will be formed. Filter it and test it with nitric 
acid as in Exercise B. What food principle is it? 

Analysis of Peas or Beans. 

Materials needed .—Dried peas, peanuts, or beans, mortar and pestle, 
wire strainer, filter paper, funnel, washing soda, vinegar, Bunsen 

burner, concentrated nitric acid, 6-inch test tubes, writing paper, a 
small piece of white china, and label for test tube. 

Experiment 3 .— (A) Bowder some dried peas, peanuts, or beans 
in a mortar. Treat a little of the flour obtained as you treated wheat 
flour in Experiment 2 (A). Do dried peas and beans contain any 
water ? 

(B) Treat the ground peas or beans as directed in Reference No. 
7, Experiment 69, pp. 142, 143. Use washing soda to make an alka¬ 
line solution and vinegar for the acid. The first straining may be 


16 


through choose cloth and the liquid filtered through paper. Fest 
with concentrated nitric acid the matter (vegetable casein) that Im»- 
caine solid on adding vinegar. To what class of food principles does 
vegetable casein Udong? 

(C) Remove the residue left in the first filter paper and boil a little 
of it with water. Add a drop of iodin. What besides water and 
casein do peas and beans contain? Reserve the remainder of this 
residue and dry it for use in Experiment 14. 

(1)) Crush some peanuts on writing paper and warm if necessary. 
The grease spot shows what? 

(E) Ash may l>e shown by burning some of the ground material 
on a piece of china over a Bunsen burner flame. 

SECOND LECTURE—COMPOSITION OF THE BODY AND THE USES OF 

FOOD CONSTITUENTS IN THE BODY. 

COM POSITION OF THE BODY. 

The elements that go to form the body are the same as those found 
in food, and they are combined so as to form the same substances. 
Water forms nearly two-thirds of the body weight, protein about one- 
fifth, fat varies with individuals, one-twentieth is mineral matter, and 
a minute portion is carbohydrate. (Reference No. 24, pp. 6, 7.) 
The lecturer will illustrate by blocks or charts showing the composi¬ 
tion of the human body. All the tissues contain all five of these prox¬ 
imate principles, but in some tissues one or more principles will 1h» 
found to a greater extent than in others. Thus, the blood contains a 
great deal of water, the muscles much protein and water, the bones a 
large amount of mineral matter, etc. The composition of the human 
body is so like that of other animals that a study of meat, including 
bone, flesh, and fat, will serve as an illustration of the human body. 

THE USES OF FOOD. 

We must eat food (1) to build body material, i. e., repair worn- 
out tissues and supply material for growth (Reference No. 23, p. 1), 
and (2) to furnish heat and energy, or, in other words, act as fuel. 
(Illustrate by explaining the generation of power or motion in an 
engine.) The only fuel that the body can use is food or body mate¬ 
rial formed from food. (Reference No. 24, pp. 8-10.) 

Some parts of the foods are especially useful for building mate¬ 
rial. Mineral will be needed if bones are to be built, for bones are so 
largely composed of mineral. Protein will be needed if muscles are 
to be built, for muscles are so largely composed of protein. As only 
protein foods can build protein body tissues, and all the tissues con¬ 
tain protein, they are called tissue formers, or flesh formers. All the 


17 


foods that contain carbon and hydrogen (which are combustible) 
will act as fuel. Protein also serves as fuel, so it has a dual func¬ 
tion in nutrition. (Reference Xo. 21, p. 73.) 


HEAT OF COMBUSTION. 

Foods differ as to the amount of heat they yield just as coal and 
wood do. Pure fat yields over twice as much heat as carbohydrates 
or protein, and in general fatty foods have a higher fuel value than 
proteid or carbohydrate foods. The amount of heat given by any 
food when burned is called its “heat of combustion.” The unit used 
to measure the heat is called a “calorie.” A calorie is the amount of 
heat required to raise 1 pound (pint) of water 4° F. (References 
Xo. 24, pp. 11, 12; Xo. 23, p. 2.) 

NUTRIENTS FURNISHED BY VEGETABLE FOODS. 

Most vegetable foods contain a smaller percentage of fat and pro¬ 
tein than those of animal origin, though there are such exceptions as 
olives, nuts, etc., which contain a very large amount of fat, and beans 
or peas, which contain much protein. In general, it may be said that 
although we get a great deal of our protein and fat from vegetable 
foods, we depend on them almost exclusively for carbohydrate ma¬ 
terial, which in many cases forms nearly three-fourths of their 
entire weight. In animal foods the compounds more closely resem¬ 
ble the body compounds, and yet the body has the power of trans¬ 
forming vegetable protein into body protein and changing fat and 
carbohydrates to a form adapted to its use. 


THE FITTING OF FOODS TO TIIE NEEDS OF THE BODY. 

The amount of food needed to repair waste and provide for growth 
in children and also to supply energy and heat varies with (1) dif¬ 
ferent individuals, (2) climate and clothing, more heat being lost 
by radiation in a cold climate or with little clothing, and (3) the 
amount of work done. If much work is done more fuel will be re¬ 
quired than where the body expends but little energy. (Reference 
Xo. 3G, pp. 309, 370.) 

Other conditions, such as the age, health, and size of the individual, 
also enter into the question. By much careful study of a great num¬ 
ber of people with a variety of occupations an average has been found 
which may act as a guide to the selection of the right kind and 
amount of food. This average is called a standard dietary. (Refer¬ 
ence Xo. 23, pp. 6, 7.) According to such a standard women doing 
a moderate amount of work require 2,800 calories to be obtained from 
their daily food, while to renew the worn-out protein and keep the 

37839—Bull. 200—08-2 



18 


body in normal condition the food provided should supply 0.224 
j)ound of protein per day. The following table gives tin* amount of 
some common foods which would furnish 0/2*24 pound of protein 
and about *2,800 calories. (References No. 1, pp. 245-248; No. 19, pp. 
383, 380.) 


Table 1 .—DaUy dietary for a woman doing moderate work , the food material* 
furnishing approximately a standard ration of 0.22 -'/ pound protein and J.S00 
calories. 


Kind of food. 

Amount. 

Protein. 

Heat of 
comhiis- 
tiOD. 

Kind of food. 

Amount. 

Protein. 

Heat of 
combus¬ 
tion. 


Ounceft. 

Pound. 

Calories. 


Ounces. 

Pound. 

Calories. 

Hccf chuck 

6.00 

0.064 

448 

Potatoes_ 

8.50 

0.008 

128 

Miickcrcl snlf. 

3.75 

.032 

184 

Rice- - 

1.00 

.008 

104 

Two epcri 

3.00 

.024 

108 

Bread_ _ 

8.00 

.040 

570 

Butter_ 

2.50 


565 

Sugar- 

3.00 

— 

348 

Cheese. _ 

Milk 

.80 

13.00 

.016 

.082 

104 

2U0 

Total_ 


0.224 

2,785 









EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, SECOND LECTURE. 


A Study of Bone. 

Experiment 4* Materials needed .—Dilute hydrochloric acid, two 
rib bones of mutton or lamb, a shin bone of beef sawed in two, 18 
inches of copper wire No. 20, utensil in which the rib bone can lie 
submerged in acid, a small piece of white china. 

Exercise. —Follow the directions given in Reference No. 31, p. 157, 
using rib bones of mutton or lamb for B and C. 

A Study of Fat. 

Experiment 5. Materials needed. —One pound of beef suet, a 
saucepan, a strainer, a piece of cheese cloth 10 by 10 inches, nitric 
acid, test tube. 

Exercise. —Examine a piece of suet. Is it a homogenous mass? 
Cut up some of it into small pieces, cover it with cold water, and 
allow it to boil until the water is boiled away. Then cook it slowly 
until the scraps are shriveled and settle to the bottom. Strain 
through a cheese cloth and let the clear liquid grow cold. This 
part is the fat. The remainder is membrane, which forms cells 
that hold the fat, which is liquid or semiliquid when the animal is 
alive. Test some of these scraps of membrane with nitric acid. 
What food principle do they contain? 


A Study of Muscle. 

Experiment 0 . (A) Materials needed. —A meat press, a broiler, 

one-half pound of lean l>eef. 

Exercise .—Warm a piece of meat slightly in a broiler near a fire 
and cut it into small pieces. Squeeze it in a meat press or iron 
lemon squeezer. What is one food principle found in muscle? 


























19 


(B) Materials needed .—Filter paper and a funnel, 2 small sauce¬ 
pans, white of an egg, nitric acid, test tube. 

Exercise .—Chop fine the squeezed meat left from Experiment A 
and add a little water to it. Stir it well and squeeze it again. Filter 
the liquid. Put the liquid obtained from Experiment A with this 
and boil it. Is it all liquid now? Test the coagulated material 
with nitric acid. AA hat is this other food principle that you have 
found in the piece of muscle? (Lecture 1, p. 13.) Treat the solid 
part of meat that is left after squeezing with nitric acid. What food 
principle is found in the solid part of muscle? 

(C) Materials needed .—A food chopper, 1 ounce of lean beef, a 
small piece of cheese cloth, a wire strainer, tincture of iodin. 

Exercise .—Chop a small piece of meat fine. Put it in one-fourth 
of a cupful of water and stir it well. Strain it through cheese 
cloth. Is there any sediment in the liquid? Boil it and add a 
drop of iodin to a portion of it. Is starch found in muscles? 

(D) Test for ash by burning a little meat on a piece of china. 

What food principles have you found in vegetable foods? What 

in animal tissues? Make a list of each and compare them. 

Balanced Menus. 

Materials needed .—The foods given in the standard dietary (see 
second lecture, p. 18), dishes to put the foods on. 

Exercise .—Weigh a balanced day’s ration for a woman with mod¬ 
erate work. The one given in the second lecture will be a good 
one for the purpose. AVhen the food is weighed and can be seen, 
have the students plan meals using for the three meals only the 
materials displayed. Set aside as much of these as will be planned 
for each meal. Have the students compare their customary diet 
with this dietary as to total amount and character to determine 
whether their home meals as provided are conspicuously lacking or 
in excess of any one of the food principles. Work out the cost of 
this dietary at local prices. 

THIRD LECTURE—DIGESTION, ASSIMILATION, EXCRETION. 


DIGESTION. 


Digestion consists in large measure in rendering food soluble so 
that it may pass through the walls of the intestines and get into the 
blood and by this fluid be carried to all parts of the body. Food 
which is not thus digested passes from the body in solid form, having 
been of absolutely no nutritive value. It is only the foods which get 
into the blood and are carried to the tissues that can act as tissue 
formers or fuel, since the tissue building is done in that part of the 


20 


bodv in which the* new tissues arc needed. f l In* act of forming muscle 
tissue takes place in the muscles, bone tissue in the bones, skin tissue 
in the skin, etc. The burning of the fuel foods takes place largely in 
the muscles. 

In order that solid foods may be made liquid some solvent must act 
on them. Water will dissolve salt or sugar. Not all foods, however, 
are readily soluble in water alone, and therefore the body must pro¬ 
vide some material which, when added to water, will dissolve the 
foods that enter the bodv in solid form. There is no one substance 
in the bodv which will dissolve everv known solid food, consequently 
the body secretes several substances called digestive ferments, one of 
which will act on one kind of food and dissolve it, others of which 
will dissolve other foods. Thus a great variety of foods can be 
digested. 

As will lx* remembered from the first lecture, all foods are com¬ 
posed of five classes of compounds, known as the five food principles. 
One organ or set of organs will secrete the necessary material to digest 
one of these, such as starch, another will secrete material for digest¬ 
ing the proteid parts of food, another organ will secrete that which 
will emulsify or alter fats, while still another will change the sugar. 

The whole set of organs which is devoted to the liquefying of food 
is called the alimentary canal. The names of these organs are the 
mouth, esophagus or gullet, stomach, and intestines. Opening into 
the walls of these organs are smaller organs called glands, whose 
function is to secrete liquids, one gland secreting one kind of liquid 
and another gland another kind, which they pour into the alimentary 
canal to become mixed with the food. Some open into the mouth and 
secrete saliva, one, named the pancreas, opens into the intestine, the 
liquid that comes from it being called pancreatic juice. The liver 
also secretes a material called bile, which pours into the intestines and 
aids, indirectly, in the liquefying of foods. Besides these large glands 
there are, in the walls of the canal, hundreds of very small ones, each 
of which pours out its digestive fluid. Those in the walls of the stom¬ 
ach pour out what is called stomach or gastric juice, those in the walls 
of the intestines secrete intestinal juice. These many juices are each 
composed of water and some material which will aid the water in dis¬ 
solving food. Among these materials are ferments (Reference No. 
45, pp. 07-09), which attack foods, breaking them up chemically 
as yeast breaks up sugar in wine and bread making, so that the ele¬ 
ments of which they are composed may be recombined in other com¬ 
pounds which are soluble. 

Note.—T he teacher will show by chart or blackboard drawing a diagram of 
the alimentary canal, indicating the enlargements where mouth and stomach 
occur, the salivary and pancreatic glands, the gall bladder, and liver. 


21 


Carbohydrates are digested by the saliva and intestinal juice. 
1 roteids are digested by the stomach juice and the intestinal juice, 
bats are digested chiefly by the intestinal juice. (Reference Xo. 31, 
p. 199.) 

The chewing of food is an important feature of the digestive 
process. The walls of the alimentar} r canal are in constant motion 
when food is passing through, so that it is turned over and over, 
kneaded, and mixed with digestive juices, but large unchewed masses 
or particles of food surrounded by tough cell walls or coatings of 
impervious material will not digest so readily. Chewing is therefore 
of great assistance in breaking up the food and exposing as large a 
surface of it as possible to the action of the digestive juices. 

ASSIMILATION. 

When the food is made liquid, it will pass through the minute 
organs situated in the walls of the intestines and is emptied into 
small tubes which gradually unite to form larger and larger tubes 
and which bear it toward the heart. Before it is poured into the 
blood all the food, except the fat, must pass through the liver. This 
is in order that the liver may have an opportunity to still further 
change it, and to hold back that which is not needed at once in the 
other parts of the body. It will, from time to time, allow whatever 
food may be needed to pass out again and be carried up and poured 
into a large vein that leads into the heart. It then forms a part of 
the blood and is pumped by the heart, through the arteries, to every 
part of the body. When it reaches tissues that need repair these 
tissues take what material they need for this purpose from the blood. 
The waste material, that which comes from worn-out tissue, etc., is 
taken up by the blood and borne away. If energy be needed that 
work may be done, the muscles, which are adapted to the burning of 
fuel and use of power, use the stored material which forms part of 
their substance or take from the blood the fuel elements they need, 
also the oxygen for combustion or oxidation which the blood has 
acquired in the lungs from the air. The oxidation of foods in the 
body is essentially the same process as combustion or burning as Ave 
are familiar with it and results in the same waste products. (Refer¬ 
ence Xo. 31, pp. 1-5.) The blood also carries away from the tissues 
these combustion products. The blood, then, is a kind of vehicle 
carrying to the tissues building material and fuel and bearing away 
waste matter. These processes that take place in the tissues are 
called metabolism. 

EXCRETION. 

As the blood vessels form an endless circuit, passing from the 
heart to the tissues, on through them and back again to the heart, 
the waste matter would be carried again to the heart and sent around 


00 




to tlie tissues once more. In time this would collect in large amounts 
and would act as poison to the tissues. There must Ik* some arrange¬ 
ment made, therefore, by which these poisonous waste products can 
be removed from the blood. To accomplish this the blood passes 
through certain organs which have the power of extracting from it 
the waste material. The principal organs for this purpose are the 
lungs, sweat glands, kidneys, and liver. It will lie seen that the liver 
has many kinds of work to do. The material thus taken up by the 
liver is emptied, by means of the bile, into the intestines and in this 
way passes out of the body along with the undigested solid food. 
The sweat glands secrete the waste they have received upon the 
surface of the skin, and the kidneys secrete their waste matter in the 
form of urine. (Reference No. ‘24, p. 22.) In the lungs the carbon 
dioxid is removed. Water, one of the principal excretory products, is 
removed in the excretion of the lungs, kidneys, intestine, and skin. 

Note.—T he teacher will illustrate by chart, blackboard drawing, or in other 
ways the circulation of the blood, the lacteals and lymphatics, and the excretory 
organs. 

EXPERIMENT ANI) PRACTICE WORK, THIRD LECTURE. 


A Study of the Organs of Digestion in a Fowl. 


Experiment 7. Materials needed .—One fowl, a pair of strong scis¬ 
sors, sharp knife, a board to work on. 

Exercise .—Dissect out the organs of digestion of a fowl. (Refer¬ 
ence No. 31, pp. 195-198.) Notice the mucous membrane that lines 
the gizzard. 

Illustrations of Digestive Processes. 


Experiment 8. Materials needed .—Rock salt, common salt, rock 
candy, granulated sugar, warm water, 4 tumblers, 4 spoons. 

Exercise .— (A) One student take a little rock salt in a tumbler and 
add to it a certain quantity of warm water. Stir it until it is dis¬ 
solved. At the same time a second student take an equal weight of 
common salt and an equal amount of water at the same temperature 
and stir it until dissolved. Which dissolves first—the fine common 
salt or the coarse rock salt? 

(ID Do the same thing with rock candy and granulated sugar. 

From these experiments would you deduce that there was any ad¬ 
vantage in chewing food finely instead of swallowing it in large 
pieces? Explain the reason. 

Experiment 9. Materials needed. —One-half teaspoonful of pre¬ 
cipitated chalk, warm water, vinegar, tumbler, 10 cubic centimeter 
measuring glass, fibrin, glycerin extract or a dry preparation of 
pepsin, 2 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid, 3 small saucepans, 
3 test tubes and labels for them, 1 per cent solution of sodium car- 


23 


bonate (sal soda), glycerin extract of pancreas or a dry preparation 
of pancreatin, thermometer. 

Exercise* —(A) I ry to dissolve a little precipitated chalk in warm 
water in a tumbler. Add vinegar and observe that it readilv dis- 
solves. 

(B) Put into a test tube a few shreds of fibrin (a proteid) and 
mark it U B; add 5 cubic centimeters of warm water. Keep it at 
40° C. in a saucepan of warm water for twenty minutes. Does the 
water dissolve the fibrin? 

(C) Add to the fibrin in test tube B a few drops of glycerin ex¬ 
tract of pepsin or a little powdered pepsin, and 10 cubic centimeters 
of 2 per cent solution of hydrochloric acid. Keep it at 40° C. for 
twenty minutes. Has the addition of the pepsin and acid aided the 
water in dissolving the fibrin? 

The stomach juice or gastric juice is composed mainly of water, 
the two ferments pepsin and rennin and hydrochloric acid. The dis¬ 
solving of fibrin in Exercise C illustrates or imitates the digestion 
of proteid' foods in the stomach. The proteids when thus changed 
are called peptones. 

(I)) Put into another test tube a few shreds of fibrin and add 10 
cubic centimeters of 1 per cent solution of sodium carbonate and a 
little glycerin extract of pancreas. Keep it at 40° C. for one hour 
in a saucepan of water. This solution illustrates the action of the 
pancreatic juice as it takes place in the intestines. 

Note. —If preferred, egg albumin may be used instead of fibrin in Exercises 
Ii, C, and I) of Experiment 1), according to the directions in Reference No. 47, 
p. 04. The egg albumin requires more time to digest than fibrin. 

The mucous membrane of a chicken gizzard, when dried and pul¬ 
verized, is said to possess digestive powers. This might be prepared 
and tested. 

Experiment JO. Materials needed. —Cornstarch, filter paper, glass 
funnel, 4 test tubes and labels, 2 small saucepans, thermometer, 10 
cubic centimeter measuring glass, tincture of iodin, small white por¬ 
celain plate, a slice of bread, a glass stirring rod. 

Exercise .— (A) Boil about 1 gram of starch in about 100 cubic 
centimeters of water. Collect saliva in a test tube, dilute it with 2 
volumes of water and filter it through wet filter paper into a test tube 
and label it. Place 3 volumes of the cooked starch in a test tube and 
add 1 volume of the filtered saliva. Keep it at about 40° C. in a 
saucepan of warm water. 

Take out a few drops from time to time and put them on a white 
porcelain plate. Add a drop of tincture of iodin. Note the color at 
once, after five minutes, after ten minutes, and after fifteen minutes. 


24 


Is there any starch present at the end of fifteen minutes? Mark the 
test tnln* “A" and keep the contents for use in Experiment 11. 

(B) Into a test tube marked “AA” put 1 or 2 boluses of bread the 
size of a pea, made by chewing a piece of bread slightly. Add 1 
cubic centimeters of warm water and keep the test tube at about 
40° C. in a saucepan of warm water. 

Into another test tube marked u BB " put an equal quantity of 
the bread chewed fine, dilute with warm water as before, and keep 
it at tlu* same temperature. Test each one occasionally with iodin. 
Which one digests first ? Compare with Experiment 8. 

(C) Perform Experiment 1)6 in Reference No. 48, p. 1>4. 

Experiment II. Materials needed. —Glucose, Fehling’s solution 

(an alkaline solution of copper sulphate to which Rochelle salt has 
been added), 10 cubic centimeter measuring glass, 3 test tubes and 
labels, test-tube holder, contents of test tube B from Experiment 10, 
glass stirring rod. tumbler, glycerin extract of pepsin, or a dry pep¬ 
sin preparation. 


Exercise .— (A) Perform Experiment 1)3, Reference No. 48, p. 0*2. 

(B) Put 1 cubic centimeter of Fehling’s solution into a test tube 
and boil it. Add about 2 cubic centimeters of the starch and saliva 
(test tube A) from Experiment 10. Heat it again. What is indi¬ 
cated? To what substance is starch finally changed by the process 
of digestion? 

(C) Perform Experiment 07, Reference No. 48, p. 06. 

In what part of the body does the pancreatic juice act upon food? 
To what substance does pancreatic juice change starch? If, through 
lack of sufficient mastication, starch did not become thoroughly 
mixed with saliva, would it necessarily pass from the body undi¬ 


gested ? 

Experiment /£.—Perform Experiments A and B in paragraph 2, 
Reference No. 31. 


FOURTH LECTURE—A STUDY OF STARCH. 

STRUCTURE OF STARCH GRAINS. 

Starch is found in large quantities in all cereals, most vegetables, 
and some fruits. If it is examined under the microscope, starch will 
be found to be made up of grains which have a more or less definite 
shape, starch grains from each different vegetable growth having their 
own characteristic form, so that among a mass of unknown grains 
the source of each can be told. (Reference No. 20, pis. 47-53, pp. 1193, 
1194.) The ring markings, which can Ik* seen clearly in the picture 
of barley starch (Reference No. 20, pi. 50), indicate that the starch 
grain is built up in layers and the whole is covered bv a very thin 
elastic and somewhat porous layer or membrane. (Reference No. 
42, pp. 221, 223, fig. 1; p. 224, fig. 11.) 


25 


CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STARCH. 

Starch is composed of tlie three elements carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen. I liese elements are always found in the same proportions 
% 1 arch no matter how different in size and shape. To 

every G parts of carbon there are 10 of hydrogen and 5 of oxygen. 
For convenience this is expressed C 6 lI 10 O 5 . As the oxygen and hy¬ 
drogen occur in the same proportion as in water (H 2 0), starches and 
related bodies are called carbohydrates. 

Several carbohydrates have been found to be constituents of starch 
(Reference No. 4*2, p. 220), but it consists chiefly of a substance called 
amylose. There are two kinds of amylose with somewhat different 
characteristics. One of these is readily acted upon by ferments and 
the other is insoluble in saliva, showing that the ferment ptyalin does 
not readily act upon it. The outer layer is of this character. Starch 
is ordinarily said to be insoluble in water, but careful tests show that 
a small percentage of the starch grain is soluble in cold water. Starch 
will give a blue color with iodin, and as this is the only common sub¬ 
stance that gives this color reaction, it may be conveniently used as a 
test for the presence of starch. 


CHANGES WHICH STARCH UNDERGOES DURING COOKING. 

(A) Physical changes .—When boiling water is added to starch 
the outer covering is softened and the grains burst and the starch 
substance mingles with the water, forming a gelatinous mass which 
jellies when cold. It becomes nearly clear instead of opaque white, 
as raw starch is. If boiled a long time, part of the starch dissolves. 
These ruptured or dissolved grains are much more readily digested 
than raw starch, which to a greater or less extent escapes digestion 
because the digestive juices do not reach it on account of the unbroken 
cell walls. (References No. 43, p. 354; No. 9, pp. 383, 384, figs. 29, 
31, 32.) 

(B) Chemical changes .—If starch is heated to 320° F. it is changed 
chemically. (Reference No. T, p. 148.) The new substance formed, 
called dextrin, is soluble in cold or hot water and will not give a blue 
color with iodin, but instead a brown. Dextrin is formed when 
starchy foods are baked thoroughly, as bread crust. 

Ileat is not the only means of changing starch to a soluble form. 
Some ferments like ptyalin, which is found in saliva, and a ferment 
called diastase, found in cereals, will also bring about such a change. 
When malt (which is sprouted barley grains dried and powdered and 
which contains a large amount of diastase) is added to flour or starch, 
the diastase transforms the starch to dextrose, glucose, or grape sugar. 
(See Experiment 11 (A) for test for dextrose.) Until the age when 
ptyalin is formed in the saliva of children starch is indigestible and 


20 


irritating. Hence many infant foods are made by treating starch 
with malt. Often, however, the process of inversion, as it is called, is 
incomplete and most of the starch is left unchanged. Heating with 
certain acids will also change starch to dextrose. This is the way in 
which commercial glucose is made from starch. The dextrose solu¬ 
tion is afterwards purified from the acid (Reference No. 7, pp. 200, 
201), and the solid grape sugar may be obtained also if desired. 


FOOD VALVE OF STARCH. 

As hydrogen and carbon are combustible materials and oxygen is 
the element needed to cause burning, it will Ik* seen that starch is a 
fuel food. Although starch, like fat, does not enter into the forma¬ 
tion of the body tissues, which it will Ik* remembered contain nitro¬ 
gen, it is found that when plenty of starchy foods is eaten the proteid 
tissues of the body are not used up as rapidly as if one were fasting, 
so that it, like fat, may Ik* considered as a saver, although not a maker 
of proteid tissues. All starches are believed to have the same food 
value, the difference in cost having no relation to their nutritious 
qualities. If more starch is eaten than is utilized at once its elements 
are transformed into fat in the body and stored. 

DIGESTIBILITY OF STARCHES. 

All starches when well cooked are easily and thoroughly digested. 
Some are finer grained than others, such, for instance, as that found 
in arrowroot, which is sold under that name. These fine-grained 
starches are much prized and are more expensive than other common 
starches. They are more delicate in flavor and give cooked products 
of superior qualities. All starches, however, when pure are edible 
and digestible, and when unpleasant flavors are detected in dishes 
made from them it is owing to the fact that they have not been com¬ 
pletely purified by the manufacturer. Cheap cornstarch is a good 
example of this, and so is laundry starch. Some laundry starches 
have also had soap added to them. Starch ; s an exceedingly valuable 
food material, as it is easily digested by most people and is found 
in so many of our common and inexpensive foods. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, FOURTH LECTURE. 

Sources of Starch. 

Experiment 13. Materials needed .—Mortar and pestle, small pieces 
of cheese cloth, measuring cup, small bowls, test tubes and labels, test- 
tul>e holder, tincture of iodin, corn meal, oatmeal, tapioca, cabbage, 
turnip, green banana, apple, 1 ounce of beef, milk, 1 ounce of fish, 
rice. 


27 


Exercise .—Treat corn meal, oatmeal, tapioca, cabbage, turnip, 
green banana, apple, beef, milk, fish, and rice with cold water, as sug¬ 
gested in References No. 31, p. G8; No. 7, p. 15, to see if they contain 
starch. A\ hen starch is obtained put some of it into a test tube and 
label it plainly. When well settled pour off the liquid and dry the 
starch, keeping each kind by itself and plainly labeled. 

Make a list of those foods which contain starch. (See also first 
lecture, Experiments 1, 2 (C), and 3 (C).) Do animal foods contain 
starch? Do all common vegetable foods contain starch? 

Microscopical Examination of Starch. 

Experiment H. Materials needed .—A microscope with one-eighth- 
inch objective and No. 1 eyepiece, plain slides and cover slips, labels 
for slides, starch obtained from foods in Experiments 1, 2 (C), and 

3 < c >- .... 

Exercise. —Mix a few grains of the different starches each in a tea¬ 
spoonful of cold water. Put a drop of each on a plain slide labeled 
with the name of the starch. Cover with a cover slip and examine it 
under the microscope. Make a drawing of each one before examining 
the others. Is there a difference in size and shape in the different 
kinds of starch ? 

Chemical Properties of Starch. 

Experiment 15. Materials needed. —One gram (15 grains) of corn¬ 
starch, cold water, glass funnel, tumbler, filter paper, iodin solution. 

Exercise .—Mix starch and cold water. Filter and test the filtrate 
with iodin. Is starch soluble? 

Experiment 16. Materials needed. —Cornstarch, tincture of iodin, 
flour, dextrin, stale bread, 1 lemon, a little malt flour, 2 test tubes, 
1 test-tube holder, 1 cork or cotton to plug 1 test tube, 1 pie plate, 
a small white porcelain plate, a glass rod, a small saucepan, thermom¬ 
eter, a spoon, an oven, a toaster. 

Exercise .— (A) Slowly heat a little starch in a plugged test tube. 
When light brown dissolve a little of it on a porcelain dish and test 
it with iodin. Compare the color obtained with that obtained with 
dextrin. 

(B) To make dextrinized flour heat a few tablespoonfuls of flour 
on a tin plate in a hot oven. Stir frequently and spread the flour so 
that it will heat evenly. When it is all a very light brown take it 
from the oven. This can be used in feeding invalids, for making 
“ thickened milk.” Test a little of it with iodin. To what has the 
starch been changed? 

(C) Cut stale bread in slices and toast it. (References No. 31, p. 
88; No. 33, p. 07.) What substance is formed when toast is made? 

(I)) Boil one-half teaspoonful of starch in equal parts of lemon 
juice and water for one-half hour. Test it with iodin. What sub¬ 
stance is formed? 


28 


(E) Test a little malt flour ami water with iodin. Does it contain 
starch? Put a small amount in a test tul>e. Add 2 volumes of warm 
water to it and keep in a saucepan of water at 00* (\ or 140° K. 
for twenty minutes or more. Test it with iodin. What substance 
is in malt which makes this change in starch? 

Methods of Preventing Starch from Becoming Lumpy while Cooking. 

Experiment 17. Materials needed .—Measuring cup, cornstarch, 
granulated sugar, boiling water, 4 small saucepans, 4 spoons, 2 small 
bowls, butter, milk, eggs, double boiler, 2-quart mold, egg lieater, 
vanilla. 

Exercise .— (A) Perform Experiment A in Reference No. 31, p. 69. 

(B) Perform Experiment II, Reference No. 31, p. TO. 

(C) Perform Experiment C, Reference No. 31, p. TO. 

(D) As an application of the principles involved in B and C 1 , make 
Rebecca pudding. (Reference No. 33, p. 344.) 

(E) Mix 1 tablespoonful of melted butter, add 1 tablespoonful of 
Hour, and when these are blended slowly add one-half cupful of hot 
water, stirring all the time until the mixture l>oils. Explain why 
it does not become lumpy. 

(F) As an application of this principle make cream sauce (Refer¬ 

ences No. 3T, p. 64, or No. 33, p. 266) and serve it on the toast pre¬ 
viously made. , 

FIFTH LECTURE—CEREALS USED AS BREAKFAST FOODS. 

The most important cereal food products, because they are the 
most largely used, are those prepared from wheat, corn, rice, and oats. 
(References No. 26, p. T: No. 50, p. 98.) 

COM POSITION OF CEREALS. 

Cereals contain all five food principles. They average about two- 
thirds carbohydrates, one-tenth protein, another tenth water, and 
they contain a little fat and mineral matter. It will thus be seen that 
they are chiefly valuable as fuel foods, but the amount of protein they 
contain makes them also worthy of consideration as tissue builders. 
Since foods rich in protein are usually expensive, the cheapness of 
cereals makes the protein in them of particular importance. They 
can often lie substituted to some extent for the more expensive pro¬ 
tein foods, such as meat, eggs, etc. 

In regard to the amount of protein they contain oats rank first, 
then wheat, corn, and rice last. (Reference No. 1, p. 244.) Those 
cereals richest in protein are poorest in starch, so that the order in 
which they would stand, according to the amount of starch in them, 
would be reversed, namely, rice, corn, wheat, and oats. 


29 


In comparing cereals with protein foods such as meat, account 
must be taken of the fact that cereals are not usually eaten in the dry 
state. The only fair basis of comparison, therefore, would seem to 
be the raw cereal plus the amount of water commonly added to make 
it palatable, or the cooked cereal. The table following compares 
cereal and other foods cooked by ordinary household methods. It 
must be remembered that the composition would vary with the pro¬ 
portion of water used in cooking. 


Table 2. —Comparison of I pound of representative cooked cereal ft tods and 

certain other foods. 


Kind of food (1 pound). 

Water. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbohy¬ 

drates. 

Ash. 

Energy. 

Cost 

per 

pound. 


Pound. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Calories. 

Cents. 

Cooked oatmeal__ - 

0.845 

0.028 

0.005 

0.115 

0.007 

285 

0.6 

Cooked hominy_ 

.793 

.022 

.002 

.178 

.005 

380 

.8 

Cooked rim _ . 

.720 

.020 

.001 

.244 

.003 

525 

1.6 

Beefsteak __ _ 

.060 

.203 

.136 


.011 

950 

20.0 

Errs, edible portion_ 

.730 

.134 

.105 


.010 

720 


Milk.l_1_ 

.870 

.033 

.WO 

.050 

.007 

325 

3.5 


It will thus be seen that none of the cereals correspond very closely 
with beef in composition, but that those which absorb the least water 
give the most nourishment as they are served on the table. Because 
it is drier, a saucer of cooked rice gives more nutriment than a simi¬ 
lar quantity of oatmeal. The dry, ready-to-eat cereals would give 
more nutriment ounce for ounce than the home-cooked, moist ones, 
but not necessarily cupful for cupful, for the former are very light 
and bulky. If we compare them with the moist cereals before they 
are cooked, or if we compare the dry cereals moistened w ith milk or 
cream, as they usually are when eaten, with the home-cooked cereal 
we should find that one had not much advantage over the other. 


DKJESTIBILITY. 



as meat. In general only 0.8 as much of the protein is digested as in 
beef, so that the following table will represent a truer comparison 
of the protein value of cereals and meat. 


Table 3 .—Comparison of the approximate amount of total and digestible protein 
in 1 pound of cooked breakfast cereals and beef. 


Kind of food (1 pound). 

Total pro¬ 
tein. 

Digestible 

protein. 

Kind of food (1 pound). 

Total pro¬ 
tein. - 

Digestible 

protein. 

Cooked oatmeal - 

Cooked hominy- 

Pound. 

0.088 

.022 

Pound. 

0.024 

.019 

Cooked rice.. 

Beef..... 

Pound. 

0.020 

.203 

Pound. 

0.017 

.197 















































30 


The digestibility of ail the breakfast cereals is about equal, except, 
perhaps, rice. On account of its small amount of liber rice is com¬ 
monly said to Ik* more easily digested, although perhaps but little 
more thoroughly digested than the others. The breakfast cereals 
have alxmt the same digestibility as bread, those with the bran re¬ 
tained being about like graham bread and those without the bran 
much like white bread. When much sugar is eaten with foods, diges¬ 
tive disturbances are often noted, therefore it is well to eat cereals 
without sugar or with only a moderate quantity. (Reference No. 20, 
p. 32.) Some persons substitute sweet fruits, like dates, for sugar, 
and such combinations are palatable and wholesome. The bran of 
cereals contains much mineral matter and protein. The hard particles 
of crude fiber it contains when ground or some other characteristic 
makes it irritating to the intestine, and, consequently, such food in¬ 
creases peristaltic action, though it lowers digestibility somewhat. 
It is apparently owing to this action and to the laxative effect of one 
of the ash constituents of bran that coarse foods containing it are so 
useful if there is a tendency to constipation. (Reference No. 20, 
p.20.) 

PREPARATION. 

Although there are so many varieties of cereal breakfast foods on 
the market, most of them fall readily into one of four groups: 

(1) Those prepared by simply grinding the grain, such as Scotch 
oatmeal, cracked wheat, or wheat grits. 

(2) Those which have been steamed or otherwise cooked and then 
ground or rolled, such as the many commercial varieties of rolled oats, 
flaked rice, etc. 

(3) Those which have lieen flaked or otherwise mechanically treated 
and parched so that they are ready to eat. 

(4) Those which have been flaked or similarly treated and also 
acted upon by malt, which to some extent induces chemical changes 
in the starch, but the chief effect of which is to flavor the cereal, in 
spite of the fact that much more is often claimed for it. (Reference 
No. 20, pp. 10-12, 21.) 

These groups differ most from one another in the amount of further 
preparation they require to render them suitable for the table. The 
first group will need a great deal of cooking and the second group 
will need less cooking, the exact time depending upon the amount 
of cooking given the cereal in the course of manufacture. Probably 
it is safe to say that the length of time suggested on the package is 
generally too short. As the majority of the ready-to-eat brands 
appear to have been cooked enough, the breakfast foods of the third 
group may be eaten as purchased, although such cereals are improved 
if heated enough to make them crisp. 




31 


Except in so far as the flavor is relished there is no special advan¬ 
tage for people in ordinary health in eating malted or so-called u pre¬ 
digested 1 cereals, as these are in no true sense predigested and, in 
any case, if properly cooked, the ordinary preparations can be readily 
digested by the average individual. (Reference No. 2G, p. 22.) 


COOK I NO. 


The object of cooking the cereals is (1) to sterilize the material, 
(2) to improve the flavor and appearance of it, as a good flavor 
stimulates the flow of the digestive juices, and (3) to produce such 
changes in the structure and texture of the grains that the ease of 
digestion may be increased. Starch and the other nutrients are held 
in cells of woody fiber. Heat and water combined soften the fiber 
and rupture the cell walls so that the digestive juices can readily 
penetrate to the nutrients. The time of cooking required varies with 
the amount and character of fiber, the size of the pieces, and the 
degree of cooking which cereals may have had in the course of manu¬ 
facture. Thus, coarse hominy requires longer cooking than fine 
hominy or corn meal; wheat grits than rolled wheat, oatmeal than 
rice. Corn preparations require longer cooking than any of the 
others, there being more fiber in corn. Wheat and oats are much 
alike in respect to the amount of cooking they require. Insuffi¬ 
ciently cooked cereals are considered to be less easily digested than 
well cooked (Reference No. 49, p. 27), partly because the starch 
grains are surrounded with a mucilaginous proteid material. This 
condition disappears with long cooking. Boiling temperature affects 
the protein, making it somewhat more difficult of digestion. A long 
cooking at a lower temperature answers equally well for softening the 
fiber and cooking the starch (Reference No. 9, p. 378), and this 
method is indicated as the best one. A double boiler is almost a 
necessity when cereal breakfast foods are cooked on a stove. A hay 
box, or fireless cooker, is very convenient for cooking these foods. 
(Reference No. 3, p. 259.) With all cereals it should be remembered 
that overcooking is unusual and harmless, while undercooking is 
common and undesirable. 


COST. 


The cost of food depends not alone on the price per pound, but 
on the amount of nutrients contained in a pound and their digesti¬ 
bility. Those foods containing the most water and refuse have the 
least nutrients. Cereals contain little water and refuse, and those 
cereals which cost from 3 to 7 cents per pound are among the cheap¬ 
est foods known. The increase in price in some cereals is not due to 
any increase in the nutrients or digestibility, but in the cast of 


preparation. Corn products are the chea]>est, oat preparations come 
next, and wheat next. Those cereals which come in small packages 
are as a rule more expensive than cereals Ixiught in hulk. They are 
usually put up by large mills, where provision is made for cleanli¬ 
ness. Their tight coverings also prevent the entrance of insects and 
dirt while in the market. The fact that the manufacturer is directly 
responsible to the consumer for the condition of these goods is another 
advantage to the purchaser of package cereals. 

The amount of fuel needed to cook cereals is a factor in their cost 
as food. It is well to cook them, if possible, when a fire must be 
maintained for other purposes and merely warm them when ready to 
use them, or to make use of some fuel-saving device such as a hay 
box. (Reference No. 26, pp. 27 84 37.) 


HOMEMADE BREAKFAST FOODS. 

Any stale bread or cake may be dried and lightly browned in the 
oven, then crushed and eaten dry or with milk or cream as a break¬ 
fast cereal. Stale bread may l>e dipped in molasses and water and 
dried in the warming oven of an ordinary range from twelve to 
twenty-four hours and then crushed, to be used like the various 
granular breakfast foods. (Reference No. 26, p. 31.) 


EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, FIFTH LECTURE. 

The following table shows the proportion of water and salt to 
cereal and the time required for cooking cereal foods of different 
sorts: 


Table 4. — I’roitortion of ingredients oml time of cooking cereal breakfast foods. 


Description of cereal. 


Oatmeal, crushed, raw_ 

Oa tinea I, rolled, steamed_ 

Corn meal_ 

Fine hominy___ 

Coarse hominy (soak twelve hours).. 

Wheat grits, raw_ 

Wheat, rolled, steamed_ 

Coarse, granular wheat preparations 

Farina_ 

Rice (to be boiled)_ 

Rice (to be steamed)_ 






Additional 

Cereal. 

Water. 

Salt. 

Time of 
boiling. 

time of cook¬ 
ing in double 
lx.iler. 

Cups. 

Cups. 

Teaspoons. 

Hrs. Mins. 

Hours. 

1 

4 

1 

10 

8 

1 

3 

1 

10 

H 

1 

4 

1 

10 

3 

1 

5 

1 

10 

4 

1 

10 

2 

4 

1 

1 

5 

1 

10 

4 

1 

3 

1 

10 

1ft 

1 

6 

1 

10 


1 

4 

1 

— — 

ft 

1 

12 

2 

20 


1 

3 

1 

6 

i to i 


As shown by the results of a number of experiments which the 
author has made, cereal foods may l>e satisfactorily cooked in a hay 
box, or fireless cooker. Such a cooker may lx* readily made at home 
by following the directions given in one of the Farmers’ Bulletins of 
this Department. (Reference No, 41.) The following table shows 
































the proportion of ingredients and the time required when cereal 
products of different sorts are thus cooked: 


Table 5. —Proportion 


of ingredients ami time of cooking cereal breakfast foods 
in a hay box. 


Description of cereal. 

Cereal. 

Water. 

Salt. 

Time of 
boiling. 

Additional 
time of 
cooking in 
hay box. 


Cups. 

Cups . 

Teasp. 

Minutes. 

Hours. 

Oatmeal, crushed, raw_ 

1 

5 

1.5 

15 

12 

Oatmeal, rolled, steamed_ 

1.5 

4 

1.5 

10 

10 

Corn meal ___ 

1 

4.5 

1 

3 

6 

Fine hominy__ 

1 

5 


0 

12 

Coarse hominy (soak twelve hours)_ 

1 

12 

2 

GO 

13 

Wheat grits, raw _ 

1 

5 

1.5 

30 

12 

Wheat, rolled, steamed _ __ _ 

1.5 

4 

1.5 

5 

12 

Coarse granular wheat preparations.. 

1 

7 

1.5 

r» 

•» 

12 

Rice _____ 

1 

4.5 

2 

3 

2 


Measuring'. 

The method of measuring adopted in this course is described in 
References Xo. 31, pi. 4. p. 54; No. 33, p. 28. In using different recipe 
books the method of measuring adopted by them should always be 
ascertained, as in many books the old-fashioned method of measuring 
by rounded spoonfuls is still used. A rounded spoonful is equal to 
two level spoonfuls. 

Making a Hay Box. 


Materials needed .—For a hay box with one compartment, 1 pack¬ 
ing box, at least 18 inches long, 18 inches wide, and 20 inches high: 
1| yards heavy muslin or denim, 2 large sheets of heavy manila paper, 
1 paper of small tacks, 1 hammer, needle and thread, soft hay to fill 
the box. 

Exercise .— Ma ke a hay box, following the directions given in Ref¬ 
erence Xo. 41, pp. 1C>-19. If the box be first lined with heavy paper, 
tacked on, dust and particles from the hay will not sift out readily. 
Soft hay is best for filling a hay box. 


Hominy Mush. 

Materials needed .—For hominy, salt, water, pail for use in the hay 
box, wooden spoon, measuring cup and teaspoon, dishes for serving, 
sugar and cream. 

Exercise .—Prepare hominy mush following the directions given in 
Table 5 and Reference Xo. 31, p. 77, using a hay box. If a small 
quantity of hominy is to be cooked arrange the hay box as explained 
in the directions for making “ Indian pudding," p. 59. 

37839—Bull. 200—OS-3 






























Rolled Ont». 


Materials nvedcd .—Rolled oats, water, salt, double lioilcr, wooden 
spoon, measuring cup and teaspoon, dishes for nerving, sugar and 
cream. 

Exci'cise. —Cook rolled oats following the directions given in Table 
4, p. 3*2, and Reference No. 31, p. 77. Oatmeal gruel can also be made 
from rolled oats by the directions given in Reference No. 33, p. 500. 


Wheat Breakfast Food. 

Materials needed .—A granular wheat preparation, water, salt, meas¬ 
uring cup, teaspoon, silver knife, dates, double boiler, dishes for serv¬ 
ing, cream, wooden spoon. 

Exercise .—Cook the breakfast food by the directions given in Table 
4, p. 3*2, and ten minutes before the cereal is done add a few dates 
which have been washed and pitted and cut in small pieces. 


Food Value of Cereals. 


Experiment IS. Matt rials needed .— A pair of scales, cereal cooked 
in class work, raw cereal of the same kind, pencil and paper. 

Exercise .— When one of the cereals is cooked, weigh it. Weigh the 
quantity of raw cereal that it represents. From the table in Refer¬ 
ence No. 20, pp. 14, 15, calculate the amount of this raw cereal that 
would have a fuel value equal to one-half pound of steak (which 
would be an ordinary liberal helping of steak). What proportion 
is this of the whole quantity of cereal cooked? Set aside an equal 
proportion of the cooked cereal and notice the quantity as it appears 
when cooked. Could it be served in one portion in a meal? What 
is the difference in character or food value of this amount of cereal 
and one-half pound of steak? 


SIXTH LECTURE—CEREALS WHICH ARE USED AS VEGETABLES. 

The cereal foods which are commonly used as vegetables are green 
corn, hulled corn, macaroni and other similar pastes, and rice. 

CORN. 

Old-fashioned hulled corn is made by steeping the kernels in a 
weak solution of lye to loosen the skins and then washing thoroughly. 
The coarse hominy is hulled by a different process. The directions 
for cooking coarse hominy are given in the fifth lecture, Tables 4 
and 5, pp. 32, 33. 

Green corn is one of the most nutritious of the fresh vegetables. 
When, as is usual, the kernels are eaten whole, the indigestible skins 
may interfere with the digestion of green corn. The central part 
of the kernel is, however, very easily digested, and if the kernels 


35 


are rut down the center with a sharp knife and the inner part pressed 
out the digestible part of the corn only will be eaten. In Table 0 it 


will be seen that the composition of green corn is very similar to that 
of potatoes. 


Table 6 .—Shoicing the comparative composition of green corn, cooked hominy, 
potatoes (raw and boiled), cooked rice, and cooked macaroni. 


Kind of food. 

Water. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbohy¬ 

drates. 

Ash. 

Energy 

per 

pound. 

Green corn, raw ... __ 

Cooked hominy_ ... 

Potatoes, boiled. . . ... 

Potatoes, raw__ 

Boiled rice_ _ 

Cooked macaroni. _... ._ 

Per ern t. 

75.4 

79.3 

75.5 

78.3 

72.5 

78.4 

Per cent. 

3.1 

2.2 
2.5 
2.2 
2.8 
3.0 

Per cent. 
1.1 
.2 
.1 
.1 
.1 
1.5 

Per cent. 

19.7 

17.8 

20.9 

18.4 

24.4 
15.8 

Per cent. 
0.7 
.5 
1.0 
1.0 
.3 
1.3 

Calories. 

470 

380 

440 

385 

525 

415 


If corn forms a very large proportion of the dietary it is better to 
eat it in combination with milk than with sirup or sugar only, as it is 
rich in carbohydrates and deficient in protein. In planning meals 
containing corn it is well to introduce other foods that are rich in 
protein, such as eggs, milk, and meat. It would he a poorly planned 
meal in which the vegetables were potatoes and corn and the dessert 
made of rice or a pudding composed of cereal meals. Some pudding 
made of milk and eggs would be a better dessert with corn or rice 
used as vegetables. (Reference No. 1, p. 242.) 


MACARONI. 

Macaroni is made from wheat flour, ground from special varieties 
of wheat rich in gluten. The flour is mixed with hot water to a stiff 
dough and pressed by machinery, through cylinders perforated at the 
end to give it its characteristic form. It is then dried and, as all the 
water which has been added is evaporated, its composition is very 
similar to that of the wheat flour of which it is made. (Reference 
No. 12, j). 0.) It is somewhat more expensive than bread and slightly 
less digestible. Table 6 shows that it is between hominy and pota¬ 
toes in fuel value. It is not only on account of its nutritive qualities 
that it is valuable in the dietary, but because of the variety of its 
satisfactory combinations with other food materials. Being deficient 
in protein, macaroni should be combined with cheese or meat to make 
a well-balanced dish. This fact need not be considered if some pro- 
teid food like meat or eggs be served at the same meal. When cheese 
is cooked with macaroni the dish has such high protein value that it 
is unnecessary to supply the usual meat ration in addition. It is thus 
seen to be a good partial substitute for meat. Chopped ham as a 
substitute for cheese makes a good combination for baked macaroni. 
Sauces are often made to pour over macaroni or tomatoes are cooked 
with it. (References No. 32, pp. 224-227; No. 33, pp. DO, 91.) 
























Amorimii macaroni is equal to that which is imported in composi¬ 
tion and food value and its method of manufacture is usually said 
to Ik* more cleanly. ( Reference No. 12, p. (>1.) Tests for good maca¬ 
roni an* (1) a creamy color, (2) breaking without splitting, (3) 
not losing its tubular shape nor growing pasty when cooked, and (4) 
swelling to nearly three times its bulk when boiled. (Reference No. 

81 , p. 11^. 119 .) 

Noodles are similar to macaroni and other Italian pastes, except 
that when the dough is made eggs should he added, making the 
noodles richer in protein. Noodles can l>e treated in the same way 
as macaroni. 

RICE. 

Rice is thought to be ln*st if not eaten until at least three months 
after harvesting. Some people consider it better after three years. 

In the process of cleaning rice a considerable proportion of the 
grains become broken. These grains are separated from the whole 
kernels and sold at a cheaper rate. Their composition and food value 
will l>e just as great as that of whole kernels, but they will not make 
such a good appearance when cooked. Where strict economy is neces¬ 
sary they can In* used to good advantage. American-grown rice is 
fully equal to Japanese rice in food value, but the nutrients are in 
slightly different proportions. Japanese rice contains a little more 
protein but less starch than American rice. 

COOKING RICE. 

When properly cooked rice should Ik* thoroughly soft, but the 
kernels perfect in shape, not merged in a pasty mass. If rice is wet 
and sticky it is because it has l>een cooked too long, or in the case of 
steamed rice, with too much water added to it. Boiled rice will also 
be sticky if the water is allowed to evaporate so that what is left 
becomes thickened with starch and will not drain away completely. 
Broken rice is somewhat more likely to be stickv than whole kernels. 

V V 

Test whether the rice is cooked enough by biting through a kernel. 
If soft in the center, the rice is done. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, SIXTH LECTURE. 

Steamed Rice. 

Materials needed .—Steamer and kettle to fit under it, bowl or cus¬ 
tard cups to hold the rice, a piece of cheese cloth to fit over the top 
of the steamer, a fine colander, a double boiler, rice, salt, water, dishes 
for serving. 

Exercise .— (A) Cook steamed rice in a double boiler by the direc¬ 
tions in Table 4, p. 32. 


37 


(B) Cook steamed rice in a steamer. Use 1 teaspoonful of salt 
and 2 cupfuls of boiling water for each cupful of rice. Put all 
together, after washing the rice, in a bowl. Set the bowl in a steamer 
over rapidly boiling water. Cover the steamer with a thin cloth 
before putting on the tin cover to prevent water from condensing 
and dropping on the rice. Steam for three-quarters of an hour to an 
hour, or until the rice is soft. If each student makes steamed rice, 
use the recipe in Reference No. 37, p. 13, and have the rice cooked in 
custard cups. 

Turkish Pilaf. 


Materials needed. —Double boiler, fine colander, fork, cooked 
strained tomatoes, highly seasoned stock, rice, salt, pepper, butter, 
dishes for serving. 


Exercise. —Cook Turkish Pilaf IT by the directions in Reference 
No. 33, p. 90. This dish can also be made in a hay box, but the pro¬ 
portion of liquid must be increased by one-half cupful. 


Boiled Rice. 


Materials needed. —Rice, water, salt, colander, large saucepan, 
dishes for serving, oven, tin plate. 

Exercise. —Boil rice according to the data in Table 4, p. 32. When 
the rice is tender drain it into a colander and stand the colander on a 
tin plate in the oven with the door open for five minutes. Serve it in 
a hot dish. If each student boils rice, use the rule in Reference No. 
37, p. 13. 

Poor Man’s Rice Pudding 1 . 


Materials needed. —Rice, sugar, milk, 
dishes. 

Exercise. — Ma ke poor man's pudding 
Reference No. 34, p. 335. 


baking dish, oven, serving 
by the directions given in 


Baked Macaroni and Cheese. 


Materials needed. —Large saucepan, colander, baking dish, grater, 
one 2-quart saucepan, one 1-quart saucepan, measuring cups, tea¬ 
spoons, tablespoons, case knife, macaroni, cheese, stale bread, butter, 
milk, flour, salt, pepper, serving dishes. 

Exercise. —Boil macaroni in a large amount of boiling water to 
which has been added a teaspoonful of salt for every quart of water. 
If macaroni is soaked in cold water for several hours it will boil in 
less time than if unsoaked. If it has not been soaked it will require 
about forty minutes. Drain in a colander when it is very soft and 
white. Make baked macaroni and cheese by the directions given in 
Reference No. 33, p. 90, using one cupful of thin white sauce (Refer- 


38 


ence No. 33, p. 237), one-half cupful of grated cheese, and one cupful 
of buttered crumbs for each pint of cooked macaroni. Buttered 
crumbs are made by crumbling the inside of stale, but not hard, bread 
and adding to each cupful one-eighth teaspoonful of salt, a dash of 
pepper, and one tablespoonful of melted butter. Stir the crumbs 
into the butter until they are evenly buttered. Do not use the crusts 
of bread in scalloped dishes; save them to Ik* dried and ground line 
for list* oil fried food. 


Planning Menus Containing Cereals. 


Materials needed .—Notebooks and pencils. 

Kfercixe .—Plan menus using either rice, coarse hominy, fi 
green corn, or macaroni. Try to make an attractive and 
meal. These may lx* discussed by the class. 


*ied mush, 
balanced 


SEVENTH LECTURE—BREAD. 


THE I NUKED I ENTS. 


The ingredients used in making bread are flour, liquid, yeast or 
some leavening agent, fat to make the bread less tough, and salt to 
season it. Sugar is often added to improve the flavor and aid the 
yeast growth. Excess of sugar, fat, or flour makes dough dense, so 
that it will not expand as quickly as otherwise*. For this reason more 
yeast must be used in mixtures that are very “short " or very sweet. 
Bread flour should be used in mixtures raised by yeast; lard or butter 
may be used for the fat: soft water is better than hard, but it must lx* 
as pure as for drinking purposes or the dough will be likely to turn 
sour or spoil. Any ordinary kind of yeast will raise bread. The 
question of yeast and flours will be taken up later. If whole or 
skimmed milk is used the bread will be more nourishing than when 
the dough is mixed with water. It also has a different texture and 
whiter color than water gives it, and when whole milk is used the 
fat in the milk has the eifect of adding “shortening." (Reference 
No. 1(5, j). 341.) 


THE PROCESS OF MAKING BREAD. 

For a description of the process see Reference No. G, p. 340. Recall 
Experiment 2 (B) in the first lecture to explain the influence of 
kneading upon gluten. 

The time required for the process of making bread depends upon 
the amount of yeast used and the temperature of the dough during 
the rising. 


39 


The Mixing. 

I he more thoroughly the mixing is done the better the product will 
be, and, although much kneading will cause bread to take longer to 
rise, the improvement in texture makes up for this disadvantage. 
1 he use of a bread machine is to be recommended, as it is a more 
cleanly way of making bread than kneading by hand and saves time. 
(Reference No. 10, p. 344.) When using the machine the tempera¬ 
ture of the dough may be a little higher than when using the hands, 
as the machine absorbs heat from the dough instead of adding heat 
to it, as the hands do. I his will make more difference the larger and 
more cumbrous the machine. Bread may also be mixed with a knife 
if a bread machine is not available. 

Table 7 shows the proportion of liquid to flour required for bread 
mixtures of different consistency. 


Table 7.— Approximate proportions of tumid to flour to make bread mixtures 

of different eonsistenep. 


Kind of flour mixture. 

Liquid. 

Flour. 

Batters. . __ _... ..... . _ _ 

Cupful. 

1 

Cupfuls. 

1 

Muffin or cake mixtures___ ....... _ . 

1 

O 

Dough to knead, as bread dough __ _ _ _ . 

1 

3 

Stiller dough, as for cookies or pie crust_... ... _ __ 

1 

4 


Batters can be mixed with a spoon, doughs more easily with a 
knife. In some cases bread is made into a batter at first by adding 
only a part of the flour. This is allowed to rise before adding the 
remaining flour, and is called a “sponge.” The different ways of 
making bread cause different flavors. The kind of yeast accessible, 
the particular meal for which hot bread is wanted, or the conven¬ 
ience of fitting in the making of bread with other cooking or house¬ 
work are the factors which usually decide the method adopted. 

The Rising. 

The temperature of the dough should be kept from the mixing 
to the baking between 70 and 90° F., unless a sponge is set overnight 
in which case it must be kept somewhat cooler. Dough is allowed 
to rise at least twice—once after mixing and again after shaping. If 
sponge is set, this is allowed to ferment until well filled with bubbles, 
and the dough then made is usually allowed to rise twice more. 
Sponge, by reason of its liquid consistency, may not double in size 
when sufficiently fermented, but dough, being stiffer, can be tested 
in this manner, for it has risen enough when it has doubled in bulk. 





















40 


Molding and Shaping. 

The form and size of a loaf make a difference in the time and 
temperature of baking. It is desirable that bread Ik* made into loaves 
not more than 4 inches broad, as the heat will penetrate such a loaf 
evenly and quickly. Cake or raised pudding which is to Ik* cooked in 
shallow or small pans will not need to Ik* so stiff as if cooked in a large* 
deep pan. Breads which must Ik* kneaded before shaping will have to 
Ik* stiff, no matter how small the shape when baked. 


Baking. 

The heat of the oven should Ik* greater for small-sized molds, such 
as rolls, cakes, etc., baked in gem pans or thin layers, than when large 
loaves are to be baked. The temperature of the oven before tin* bread 
is put in should depend partly on the quantity of bread being made. 
If a large number of loaves are to be baked at once they will cool the 
oven somewhat, and this must lx* allowed for. 

Dividing the time of baking into three equal periods, the tempera¬ 
ture of the oven, for baking medium-sized loaves of bread, should be 
about 300° F. or 150° C. at the beginning, increased to not more than 
325° F. or 1(>0° C. for the middle period, and gradually decreased 
again to the original temperature during the third period. Such 
loaves will require from fifty minutes to one hour for baking. (Re¬ 
ferences No. 16, |>. 860; No. 10, pp. 28, 29.) 


EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, SEVENTH LECTURE. 


The Ingredients of Bread and the Effect of Varying Them. 

Material* needed .—Small bowls, knives, measuring cup and spoons, 
sieve, bread boards, thermometers, small bread pans, oven, straight 
flour, salt, sugar, lard or butter, compressed yeast, whole milk, 
skimmed milk, flour dredgers. 

Exercise .—Each student should make a small loaf of bread, using a 

larger proportion of yeast than ordinarily, so that the whole process 

may come within the available time. Some loaves are to In* made with 

water, some with whole and some with skimmed milk. Varying 

%/ 

quantities of fat are to be used and in one loaf no fat is to be used. 
Except for these changes the loaves are to lx* made alike, to show the 
effect of shortening and other variations on the texture, etc. Use 
compressed yeast and straight flour and give the bread two risings. 
The recipe given in Reference No. 37, p. 61, may be used for all loaves 
except those in which the fat is to be experimented with. 


41 


Detailed Process of Making Bread. 

Scald milk, if it is used, to kill any bacteria that it may contain. 

%J 

Cool it to blood heat or less; add to it the melted fat, sugar, salt, and 
veast softened in warm water. Then add gradually enough sifted 
flour to make a dough which can be kneaded. If the flour is very cold, 
warm it to about 70° F. Knead it on a floured board until it is smooth 
and elastic. When kneaded enough it will quickly rebound if pressed 
with two fingers. Return it to the mixing bowl, moisten the top with 
warm water, milk, or melted fat to prevent a dry crust from forming, 
cover it with a clean folded towel or cloth, and keep it in a warm place 
(about 100° F.) until it has doubled in size. Then put it on a board 
and knead it again to break all the large bubbles and distribute the 
new yeast plants. It is kneaded enough when it stops squeaking or 
cracking, or, when cut through the center with a knife, no large 
holes are seen. Mold it into loaves, put it into greased bread pans, 
and let it rise again until it has doubled in size. Bake small loaves, 
such as are used for class work, twenty-five or thirty minutes, using 
a thermometer in the oven. (Reference No. 31, pp. 130, 131.) 

Note.—D uring the rising of the bread the other experiments may he per¬ 
formed. 

Calculating the Nutrients in Bread Made from Various Materials. 

Materials needed .—Pencil and paper, a pair of scales, fat like that 
used in making the bread. 

Exercise .— (A) From the table in Reference No. 8, p. 55, calculate 
the difference in nutritive value of loaves of bread made with whole 
milk, skimmed milk, and water, allowing one-half pound (one cup¬ 
ful) of liquid to each loaf. 

(B) Weigh four times the quantity of fat that was used in each 
loaf made in this lesson (as the small loaves were one-fourth the 
usual size) and calculate the difference in food value in an ordinary 
loaf of bread made with each quantity of fat. 


To Prove what Gas is Formed During the Rising Process. 

Experiment 19. Materials needed .—Flask, rubber stopper, glass 
tube, molasses, limewater, beaker or tumbler. 

Exercise .—Perform Experiment B (Reference No. 31, p. 127), 
using molasses and water in which to grow the yeast. 

Experiment .JO. —Smell of the bread dough when it has risen light 
and is removed from the bowl to be molded into loaves. hat sub¬ 
stance do you detect by its odor? 


EIGHTH LECTURE—YEAST AND MOLDS. 

WHAT 18 YKANT ? 


The confusion of mind resulting from calling so many diirorent 
materials yeast can be cleared up to some extent when we consider 
what these different materials really are. Compressed yeast, dry 
yeast, hop yeast, liquid yeast, etc., are in reality mixtures of several 
substances, only one of these substances being yeast. 

Yeast is a plant too small to he seen with the naked eye, consisting 
of one cell, which can he cultivated as any plant can, and will grow 
and reproduce very rapidly if given favorable conditions. (Refer¬ 
ences No. 38, p. 4; No. 17, pp. 59-62.) The action of yeast in a 
medium favorable to its growth is called fermentation. (Reference 
No. 10, p. 16.) Other microscopic plants will grow in foods, if 
proper conditions exist, producing in some cases fermentation, in 
others putrefaction. (Reference No. 38, p. 2.) 

REQUIREMENTS FOR GROWTH. 

Like other fungus plants, yeast requires for growth (1) warmth, 
75 to 95° I*', being the most favorable temperature; (2) moisture; 
(3) food, which consists of a small quantity of nitrogenous matter, 
mineral matters, and sugar. Yeast does not grow in pure sugar, 
but practically any food which contains sugar also contains enough 
of the other substances to support the life of yeast plants (Reference 
No. 17, p. 66); and (4) oxygen, which it gets from the air, when 
it is supplied freely, and from sugar when air is deficient. The 
growth of the yeast results in change of the sugar, breaking it up 
and forming alcohol (experiment and practice work, Lecture No. 7, 
Experiment No. 20) and carbon-dioxid gas (Reference No. 30, pp. 
127-129; experiment and practice work. Lecture No. 7, Experiment 
No. 19). It is to obtain this gas, which renders dough porous, that 
we use yeast. 

Diastase, which is naturally present in flour, will change some of 
the starch in dough to sugar. By reason of this fact food for yeast 
is always available in dough. The presence of a considerable quan¬ 
tity of the products of yeast growth seems to check its further devel¬ 
opment and in time will cause it to lost' its vitality, so that unless 
fresh material he added it will not continue indefinitely to form gas. 
If kept too long the plants finally die. If given somewhat unfavor¬ 
able conditions the plant will not grow in its usual way, by division 
which may be called putting forth buds, but will form spores, which 
will afterwards grow and produce plants if given the right condi¬ 
tions. (Reference No. 10, pp. 17-19.) 


43 


CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT FERMENTATION. 

(1) Organic acids, such as malic and tartaric acids, assist fermen¬ 
tation with yeast, but check fermentation with bacteria. 

(2) Mineral acids, such as sulphuric and nitric acids, prevent fer¬ 
mentation. 

(3) Alkalis arrest fermentation due to yeasts and molds, hut not 
that due to bacteria. 

(4) Boiling hinders and, if prolonged, prevents fermentation. 

(5) Low temperature retards fermentation, but does not destroy 
the organisms of fermentation. 

(G) Salt, in excess of about 1 part to 100 of the water used in 
bread making, retards or completely checks yeast fermentation. Salt 
also hinders bacterial fermentation. 

(7) Hops check bacterial fermentation, but do not materially affect 
yeast fermentation. The action of hops is due to the presence in 
them of tannin. (Reference No. 38, pp. 13, 14.) 

(8) Yeast and bacteria cause fermentation more quickly in cooked 
flour than in raw, as the starch is then more easily attacked owing to 
the softening influence of cooking. 

(9) Cooked potatoes stimulate and hasten yeast fermentation. 

(10) Water in which potatoes have been boiled also stimulates 
yeast growth, but in slightly less degree than cooked potatoes. 

(11) A lively growth of yeast tends to check bacterial fermenta¬ 
tion. 

COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURE OF YEAST. 

(1) The microscopic plants are sown in vats filled with a liquid 
mixture which acts as a food for yeast; (2) the new plants rise to 
the top with the foam formed and are skimmed off, the first skim- 
mings being discarded because of their bad flavor; (3) the later skim- 
mings, which are of better flavor, are washed and the water partly 
removed: (4) the washed material is mixed with starch, flour, or other 
material, and (5) pressed into cakes, if sold in solid form. For dry 
yeast the process is concluded by carefully drying the cakes at a low 
degree of heat, meal being used instead of starch or flour in the fourth 
process described above. For compressed yeast the yeast plant is 
usually grown in a sweetened liquid. Brewers' yeast is used in fer¬ 
menting malt for beer; distillers’ yeast is used in fermenting material 
such as rve, corn, barley, etc., which is later distilled for whisky. 
The (1 avor of bread made with brewers' yeast is different from that 
made with compressed or distillers’ yeast, often imparting a bitter 
taste to bread. This can be prevented by washing the yeast in cold 
water, allowing it to settle, and pouring off the water. (References 
No. 17, p. 79; No. 14, p. 183.) Brewers’ yeast in its growth softens 
the gluten, thus injuring the bread-making qualities of a good flour. 


44 


(X)MPRKMHKI) YKAHT. 

Tests for Fresh Yeast. 

The cake should be firm, a little moist, hut not sticky nor putty 
like, creainv colored, when broken should show a fine fracture, and 
when a little is placed on the tongue it should melt readily in the 
mouth with no acid odor or flavor. It should have no cheesy smell. 
(References No. .‘18, p. 5; No. 14, p. 180.) 

Care of Compressed Yeast. 

The plants in the yeast cake l»egin to die in a day or two and after 
three or four days only a few living plants may be left unless the 
yeast is kept under very favorable conditions. Bacteria or wild 
yeasts then Income active and the yeast cake decays. Even before 
the cake decays these other growths may multiply enough so that 
when planted in the dough they would produce undesirable flavors. 
If yeast must l>e kept several days place it in cold water and keep it 
in the ice chest, hut do not let it freeze. (Reference No. 17, p. 80.) 


DRY YEAST. 


Drying kills some of the yeast plants hut not all. In time more of 
the plants die, and the longer yeast of any kind is kept the fewer 
living plants it contains. In dry yeast the plants are in a dormant or 
spore state and it takes longer for them to start active fermentation 
than for plants in the active state, as found in compressed yeast. To 
aid their development it is well to soak the cake for a time in warm 
sweetened water. (References No. 17, pp. 81, 8‘2; No. 38, pp. 5, 9.) 


HUM KM AI>K YEAST. 


As yeast is a plant and can not Ik* made by human hand the process 
described as “ making yeast " is in reality the preparation of a good 
soil for yeast to grow in and the sowing of the yeast plants in that 
soil. The soil or 44 brew M consists of either a cooked or raw mixture 
of flour and water, potatoes and water, or meal and water, with the 
addition, perhaps, of salt and, in some cases, extract of hops or malt. 
When stock yeast is added to this brew the yeast is “planted." If 
kept warm the plants reproduce rapidly and all signs of fermentation 
follow. As potatoes have a very stimulating effect in the growth of 
yeast, but not so with bacteria, and as hops have a decidedly retard¬ 
ing effect upon fermentation with bacteria, but not so with yeast, it 
would seem that a good brew would be one made with potatoes and 
hops. (Reference No. 38, p. 10.) 


45 


l se equal parts of homemade yeast and liquid in making bread, if 
the dough is to rise by the short process; and one part of yeast to two 
parts of liquid if the dough is to rise over night. (Reference No. 15, 
p. 343.) 


SALT RISING BREAD. 


^ hen the brew is prepared but no stock yeast or old raw dough 
(leaven) is added, it will still be found that in time the mixture will 
ferment if kept warm. This spontaneous fermentation is due to the 
fact that yeast spores, when dried, are very light and are blown 
about so that they are present almost everywhere. These floating 
spores may be those of the household yeasts or those of “ wild v yeasts 
which are common, for instance, in drying fruit, etc., but which are 
not often cultivated. The spores can enter the brew from the air or 
from the utensils used in mixing. When accidentally planted they 
grow, as any yeast would, and produce fermentation. Fermentation 
may also be the result of the natural presence of ferments or enzvms 
in flour. (Reference No. 20, p. 1301.) 

Along with the wild yeast obtained in this method of making bread 
there are usually also obtained a large number of bacteria, which form 
bodies of characteristic odor and flavor in the course of their fermen¬ 
tation, and to this is due the peculiar odor and flavor of salt-rising 
bread. (Reference No. 17, p. 73.) 

The uncertainty of this method of making bread is one of its dis- 
advantages, but when it is made often in the same place the wild 
yeast most successful in raising this kind of bread is apt to be more 
abundant in the air, utensils, etc., than other wild yeasts. (Reference 
No. 38, p. 16.) 

MOLDS. 


Molds are minute plants, more complex in structure than yeast. 
They propagate by means of spores which are very small and light 
and blow about freely and are found nearly everywhere. As soon 
as they And conditions favorable they grow, attacking many kinds 
of food and producing great changes in their composition and flavor. 
In some cases, as in certain kinds of cheese, this is a desirable effect, 
but in most cases it is undesirable. (Reference No. 20, p. 123.) 

Molds do not grow readily in direct sunlight, and even diffused 
light checks their growth to some extent. They require food and 
moisture and grow more readily in stale, stagnant, damp air than in 
fresh air, which is a valuable preventive for moldiness. (References 
No. 17, pp. 33—39; No. 18, p. 363.) 


4(i 


EXPERIMENT AND ritACTK K WORK, KUJIITH 


I.K(TIRK. 


The Growth of Yeast. 


Experiment 21 ,—Effect of temperature on (lie growth of yeast. 

Materials tarried. —Molasses, water, three test tlilies, laliels for test 
tlilies, compressed yeast, salt and ice unless in freezing weather. 

Exercise ,-—Perform Experiment A in Reference No. 31, p. 12ft. 

Experiment 22 ,—Microscopical examination of yeast. 

Materials needed .—A microscope with one-eighth inch objective 
and No. 1 eyepiece, plain slide, and cover slip. 

E.rereise .—Follow the directions given in Reference No. 31, p. 125, 
for examining yeast cells. 


Hop and Potato Yeast. 

Materials needed. —Hops, potatoes, water, two saucepans, strainer, 
small piece of cheese cloth, measuring cup, scales, mixing bowl, 
wooden spoon, glass preserving jar, compressed yeast. 

Exercise .—Make yeast No. 1, Reference No. 17, p. 83. Potatoes 
must be carefully washed before boiling and peeled before being 
mashed. (Reference No. 38, p. 12.) When the yeast is made put 
it into a preserving jar and keep it in a cool place. (Reference No. 
34, p. 63.) 

Wild Yeast “ Emptins.” 

Materials needed .—Cora meal, milk, salt, sugar, small mixing 
bowl, spoon, measuring cup. pan of hot water. 

Exercise .—Scald one-half cupful of corn meal (ground by the 

southern method, if possible) with three-fourths cupful of boiling 

milk or water. Add 1 teaspoonful salt. Set the bowl containing it 

into a pan of hot water (about 110 to 115° F.), and place it where it 

will keep at that temperature. When well filled with bubbles it is 

ready to use. 

%/ 

Dry Yeast. 


Materials needed. —Flour, dry yeast, water, saucepans, salt, mixing 
bowl, wooden spoon, measuring cups and spoons. 

E.rereise .— Soak 1 cake of dry veast in a pint of warm water for 
one-half hour. Add 1 pint of sifted flour, 1 teaspoonful of salt, 
1 tablespoonful of sugar, and let it stand in a warm place till full 
of bubbles. Scald 3 pints of milk or water, add 3 teaspoonfuls of 
salt and 2 tablespoonfuls of lard or butter, and, when lukewarm, 
the yeast mixture. Add enough flour to make a batter and beat it 
very thoroughly. I vet it stand in a warm place for eight or ten 
hours, usually over night, then add enough flour to make a dough 
that can Ik* kneaded, and proceed as with any bread made by the 
w slow process.” 


47 


Oatmeal Muffins. 


Materials needed .—Cooked oatmeal, eggs, butter, milk, flour, salt, 
sugar, mixing bowl, wooden spoon, measuring cup and spoons, gem 
pans, oven. 

Exercise .—Make oatmeal muffins according to the directions given 
in Reference Xo. 33, p. 73. 


NINTH LECTURE—A STUDY OF WHEAT FLOUR. 


Cereals used in bread making must have certain properties. For 
leavened bread gluten is essential, and wheat is the most important 
cereal containing gluten. Chemically it is a mixture of two pro- 
teids, gliadin and glutenin. When wet, gluten becomes viscid and 
is tenacious enough to hold gas. Rye also contains a gluten, other 
common cereals do not. Cereals without gluten may be mixed with 
wheat or rye and used for making leavened bread. For unleavened 
bread, such as Jewish “ unleavened bread," hoecake, and crackers, 
any cereal can be ground to meal and used. (Reference Xo. 0, p. 
348.) 

STRUCTURE. 


As will be seen by the diagrams (Reference No. 10, pp. 7, 8), the 
wheat grain proper, after husks and outer layers are removed, is com¬ 
posed of (1) the germ, embryo, or chit, (2) the endosperm, con¬ 
sisting of aleurone and the floury, central part, and (3) the bran 
or inner coverings of the seed. 

The different parts of a kernel of wheat are composed of cells, 
varying in form and structure, but too small to be seen without a 
microscope. Each cell is inclosed by a cell wall of cellulose of which 
the thickness and character vary in different parts of the grain. 
Within each living cell is a network of nitrogenous material, called 
protein. Products formed by the plant, such as starch and fat, are 
stored in the portions of the cells not filled by protein. The char- 
icter of the cell contents varies considerably in different parts of the 
seed, starch and gluten being characteristic of the interior of the 
grain rather than the outer portions. (References No. 10, pp. 7, 8; 
No. 15, pp. 61-63.) 

composition. 


The contents of the cells are, then, (1) protein compounds, which 
are the tissue building materials of our food, found in the endosperm, 
chief of which are cerealine or aleurone and the two proteids gliadin 
and glutenin which unite to form gluten; (2) the carbohydrates, 
principally starch and sugars found mainly in the endosperm and 
serving to produce energy for warmth and muscular work; (3) the 
fats, occurring principally in the germ and being valuable to the 


48 


body as fuel; and (4) mineral matters found most abundantly in 
tlit* bran and providing material for bones, teeth, etc. (Reference 
No. 10, pp. 9, 10.) 

VARIATIONS IN WHEAT. 


The conditions under which wheat grows and, still more, the 
variety of wheat grown affect the character of the cell contents 
greatly. Wheat from different parts of the country and Canada 
varies considerably. (References No. 25, p. 277; No. 34, pp. 152-154.) 

Spring wheat is hard, contains a large proportion of gluten, and 
makes a good bread flour. Winter wheat is usually softer, especially 
that grown in the southwestern part of the country, contains a large 
proportion of starch, is deficient in gluten, and yet, though not so 
good for bread making, is better than spring wheat for making 
pastry and cakes and mixtures raised with baking powder, pro¬ 
ducing articles of a more tender, delicate texture. Soft winter 
wheat when milled is usually called pastry or St. Louis Hour. 


MILLING. 

The wheat grain is ground differently according to the product 
desired. In low milling, as it is called, the grain is ground between 
two stones or rollers set as near together as possible. Graham flour 
is commonly produced in this way. In high roller milling the grain 
is washed and tempered. After removal of the bran the stock is run 
through five or more pairs of rollers, each successive pair being set 
nearer together than the last pair. After each grinding the fine 
flour is sifted out and the leavings of each sifting, called w mid¬ 
dlings.** are themselves ground and sifted several times. (References 
N<>. 10, p. li: No. 15, pp. <>l 68; No. 12, p. 11; No. l<*. pp. 21, 22.) 
Several grades of flour are thus produced and a great number of dif¬ 
ferent products. 

VARIETIES AND GRADES OF FLOUR. 

(1) Graham flour consists of all the grain coarsely ground and 
unbolted. An imitation graham flour is sometimes sold which is 
made from a mixture of milling products. Winter wheat is usually 
used for such flour, as the bran layer is not so hard and irritating 
to the digestive organs as that found in spring wheat. Graham 
flour is not. therefore, as rich in protein as a high class patent flour. 
(Reference No. 15, p. 64.) 

(2) Entire-wheat flour, if true to name, is made by removing the 
bran from hard wheat and grinding the remainder of the grain, 
but as a matter of fact the entire-wheat flours on the market are 
often a mixture of patent flour, low and middling grade flours, 
with considerable of the germ. Entire-wheat flour is not so coarse 


40 


as graham flour and contains about one-half per cent more protein 
than straight or standard flour, considerably more mineral matter, 
and about two and one-half times as much fiber. (Reference No. 15, 
pp. 69, TO.) 

(3) A\ bite flours are of various grades. The highest grade flour 
is called first patent. It has the greatest power of expansion of any 
flour and is rich in gluten. The grade most commonly used is 
standard patent or straight flour. This is a mixture of first patent, 
second patent, and first clear. (References Xo. 13, pp. 7, 8; No. 15, 
p. 66.) It has excellent expansive powers (Reference Xo. 13, pi. 1), 
is rich in protein, and makes a white loaf with good flavor and 
keeping qualities. (Reference Xo. 6, p. 358.) Pastry or St. Louis 
flour is milled like high-grade bread flours and differs from them 
according to the difference in composition between soft winter wheat 
and spring wheat. (Reference Xo. 40, p. 22.) 

(4) A number of flours are on the market which are called gluten 
flours and sold for the use of persons who are compelled to limit the 
amount of starch in the diet. Some of these are made by washing 
wheat flour until more or less of the starch is removed, drying, and 
grinding the gluten which remains, and if of good quality may be 
fairly called true to name. Others appear to be nothing more than 
flour ground by the ordinary process from wheat without any special 
preparation. (Reference Xo. 46.) 

(5) There are a number of pancake and pastry flours on the mar¬ 
ket which are “self-rising," that is, which do not require the ad¬ 
dition of baking powder. Such goods consist of mixtures of flour 
or meal, as the case may be, and baking powder, with salt and per¬ 
haps sometimes other seasoning. They are often convenient to use, 
but the products made from them are not in any way superior to 
those made from flour and leavening materials by the ordinary 
domestic methods. (Reference Xo. 47, p. 94.) 


DIGESTIBILITY OK DIFFERENT FLOURS. 


The digestibility of bread seems to depend largely on the charac¬ 
ter of the flour from which it is made. The patent flours have been 
found by many experiments made in this country and abroad to 
yield more nutriment to the body than flours containing more or 
less bran because they are more thoroughly digested. This means 
that whether the other flours contain more nutriment or not, and it 
is not true that they always do, they do not yield all their nutri- 
ment to the human body. (References Xo. 10, p. 36; No. 13, p. 36; 
No. 15, pp. 65, 66.) 

37839—Bull. 200—08-1 



50 


'The* following t a I »l« k shows t li<‘ pro|M>rtion of digestible protein 
ami carlxilmlrates in (lours of different sorts (References No. 0, pp. 

868 881: No. 18, p. 10): 

Tarlk K. —VntporiUtn of tin dipcHtibh' nutrient* found in different flour *. 


Graham.... 

Entire wheat_ 

Standard patent 

Coarse particles of bran make bread more indigestible than if the 
bran is finely ground. (Reference No. 13. pi. 1.) 

BREAD-MAKING QUALITIES OF FLOURS. 

This depends not only upon the quantity of gluten, but still more 
upon its character. (Reference No. 11, p. 38.) Gluten is composed 
of two substances, gliadin and glutenin, quite different in character, 
which when moistened cling together and form gluten. Glutenin is 
a granular material forming nearly one-third of good gluten. Glia¬ 
din is sticky and acts like glue in binding together the particles of 
glutenin. (Reference No. (>, p. 340.) The proportion of the two 
which makes the best gluten, viz, that giving the most expansion 
possible, is 65 per cent gliadin to 35 per cent glutenin. (Reference 
No. (», p. 351.) Bread made from flour deficient in gliadin lacks 
expansive powers; where gliadin is in excess the dough is soft and 
sticky. (Reference No. 5, pi. 2.) If the total gluten in flour is de¬ 
ficient but its character is good the bread will lx* nearly as good as 
from a flour rich in gluten. (Reference No. 5, pi. 2.) If the total 
gluten is in excess the bread does not become lighter but rather the 
reverse, showing that in normal flour from good spring wheat the 
proportion of gluten and starch is best for bread making. (Refer¬ 
ence No. 13, pi. 3.) The other proteids in flour have little effect on 
its bread-making properties. (Reference No. 11, p. 41.) 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, NINTH LECTURE. 

Household Tests for the Quality of Wheat Flour. 

Experiment 23. (A) Gluten test. Materials needed. —Samples of 
flour, scales, five squares of cheese cloth, 10 bv 10 inches, five small 
bowls. 

Exercise .—Test for the amount and quality of gluten according to 
the directions given in References No. 11, p. 40, and No. 25, p. 276, 
using for comparison bread or spring-wheat flour, pastry or winter- 
wheat flour, graham, entire wheat and gluten flours. Record the 


Kind of Hour. 

Protein. 

Carbo 

hydrate*. 


Per ernt. 
7 It 

at 

HU 

/Vr cent. 
*1 
04 
08 

















51 


results. A dark, stringy or putty-like gluten is of little value for 
bread-iliaking purposes. 

(H) Hreinitiation ,—Grasp a handful of good spring-wheat flour 
in the hand. I)o the same with pastry flour. The bread flour should 
fall apart easily; the pastry flour will hold the impress of the hand. 
(Reference No. 16, pp. 339, 340.) Bread flour will have a granular 
feeling if rubbed between the fingers; soft winter-wheat flour feels 
smooth. 

(C) t 1 (dor text. —High-grade flour should be white or slightly 
creamy. Dark-colored, slaty, or gray flours are of poor quality, 
indicating a low grade of flour, poor milling, or poor quality of 
gluten. After being on the market a short time flour bleaches a little 
and improves in color to a slight extent. Some flours have been 
specially bleached to improve their color, but in general color is a 
good means of testing flour. Choose a standard brand of first patent 
grade flour for making a comparison of bread flours. 

(I) ) Absorption test. Materials needed .—A good brand of first- 
patent flour, soft-wheat flour, a pair of scales, small bowls, standard 
flour. 

Exercise .—Test flour by its powers of absorbing water. Flour 
with good bread-making characteristics will absorb 60 to 65 per cent 
of its weight of water. Flours of low absorption make less bread 
and the bread dries more quickly than that made from flour with high 
absorption. (Reference No. 16, p. 340.) Add a measured and 
weighed amount of water to a measured and weighed amount of 
standard flour, pastry, or soft-wheat flour. Record and compare the 
results. 

Extracting- Gliadin from Flour. 

Experiment Materials needed .—Sample of flour, flask, stopper 
for flask, alcohol, water bath and evaporating dish or small double 
boiler, hydrochloric acid. 

Exercise .—Extract gliadin from flour by the directions given in 
Reference Xo. 25, p. 277. Treat a little white of egg in the way 
suggested for the filtrate obtained. Notice that on adding alcohol 
to flour, dough is not formed, but merely a sandy, damp mass, be¬ 
cause only one of the gluten constituents, gliadin, is soluble in alcohol, 
and gliadin alone will not give a sticky, tenacious dough. 

Graham Bread. 


Materials needed. —Bowl, spoon, measuring cup, bread pans, ma¬ 
terials named in formula. 

Formula .—One and one-half cupfuls warm water, 2 tablespoonfuls 
molasses, 2 tablespoonfuls fat, 2 teaspoonfuls salt, one-half cake of 
compressed yeast softened in one-fourth cupful warm water, H 
cupfuls white flour, 2| or 3 cupfuls graham flour or enough to make 


a stiff batter. Boat it until thoroughly mixed, smooth and elastic. 
Iit*t it rise until very light, beat it again, and pour it into two greased 
pans. U*t it rise until double its size and hake it one hour. 

Not*. —During tin* time of rising of the broad made In this lesson r**rfonn 
the ex|H»rlments for testing Hour and analysis of Hour, and make egg toast. 


Egg Toast. 

Matt rials needed .—Stale bread, 2 eggs, 1 cupful milk, salt, but ter, 
griddle, tin plate, measure cups and spoons, plates and silver for 
serving. 

Exercise .—Make egg toast bv the rule in Reference No. 34, p. TO, 
using 2 eggs in place of one, or each student preparing one slice and 
using one-fourth egg. one-eighth cupful milk, and one-eighth tea¬ 
spoonful salt. 

Bread with Potato Yeast. 

Materials needed. —Flour, milk, salt, sugar, lard, bowl, spoon, meas¬ 
uring cup, bread hoard, bread pans. 

Exercise .—Make bread using the potato yeast that was set in the 
practice work, lecture 8. Follow the directions in Reference No. 34, 
]). 64. Double the quantity of yeast or use three times the amount to 
make the process come within a few hours. 

Bolls. 

Mold half the above dough into rolls ( Reference No. 34, pp. 60-71). 
Have each student mold one or two shapes, but do not have all mold 
the same, so that as great a variety as possible may he made. 


Entire-Wheat Bread. 


Materials needed. —Entire-wheat flour, straight flour, milk or wa¬ 
ter, yeast, lard, sugar, salt, howl, bread board, bread pans, measuring 
cup and spoon. 

Exercise .—Make entire-wheat bread using the rule in Reference No. 
33, p. 58, or the rule for entire-wheat and flour bread on page 59. 


Salt Rising Bread. 


Materials needed. —Flour, milk or water, salt, sugar, lard, wild or 
virgin yeast, bowl, pan to set bowl in, thermometer, measuring cup, 
spoons, bread board, flour, dredger, bread pans. 

Exercise .—Make salt rising bread using the yeast prepared in 
Exercise 8. Yeast made with one-half cupful of liquid will raise 
four loaves of bread. Make a sponge, adding the wild yeast (see 
p. 46). Keep the sponge in a bowl set in as hot water as you can 
!>ear your hand in (about 110° F.). When light, add flour to make 
a dough, knead, mold, and, when the loaves have doubled in size, bake. 


53 


Gluten Wafers. 

Materials needed .—Gluten flour, cream, salt, bowl, spoon, measur¬ 
ing cup, bread board, grater, rolling pin, baking sheets. 

Exercise .—Make gluten wafers using one-half cupful of cream, 
one-half teaspoonful of salt, and about 1^ cupfuls of gluten flour. 
Add the salt to the cream, then add enough flour to make a very stiff 
dough. Knead it until smooth and roll it so thin that you can see the 
grain of the board through it. Prick it well with a fork or press 
with the rough surface of a grater. Cut into shapes and bake in a hot 
oven until a delicate brown. If desired to have each student make 
wafers use one-eighth cupful cream, one-eighth teaspoonful salt, and 
about one-third cupful gluten flour. 

TENTH LECTURE—A STUDY OF RYE, CORN, BUCKWHEAT. AND 

OTHER FLOURS. 


RYE. 


Rye is similar to wheat in composition, being the only other common 
cereal that contains a gluten, but it makes darker bread and less porous 
than wheat, owing to the difference in the character of its gluten. 
Rye flour is cheaper than wheat flour, and mixed with wheat flour 
makes bread of good quality. It has no greater nutritive qualities 
than other cereals, but is valuable because of the variety it gives to 
the menu. It is found that when the menu is varied and the appetite 
thereby increased that food is the more completely digested. (Ref¬ 
erences No. 6, p. 348; No. 10, pp. 13, 1G.) Leaven is frequently used to 
raise rye bread, but leaven is apt to produce a sour loaf with rye or 
anv flour. 

CORN MEAL ANI) FLOUR. 

I'lie structure of a grain of corn is similar to that of wheat. (Ref¬ 
erences No. 25, ]). 289; No. 10, p. 14.) 

Composition. 

The composition of corn is compared with other cereals in Lecture 
No. 5, p. 28. Yellow and white corn meal are very much alike in 
composition, any difference in flavor, if present, being due to the 
method of milling. 

Milling 1 . 

The milliner of corn is different in the Southern States from that in 
the Northern. The southern-made meal is of two grades; one, ground 
coarselv between stones and sifted through a coarse sieve, contains all 
of the grain except the coarse bran; the other, finely ground and 
bolted through a fine sieve, loses nearly all of the bran and therefore 


54 


contains less filK*r and mineral matter. The perm, which is left in 
southern-made meal, makes it spoil easily, as the corn oil of the 
perm soon Incomes rancid. The flavor and action in cooking of 
this meal are also quite different from that milled in the North. 
(Reference No. *20, p. 1277.) In the northern process the germ is 
first removed and artificial heat is used in the course of milling so 
that the meal keeps letter. It has an even granular consistency quite 
different from southern meal. (Reference No. 20, p. 1278.) As corn 
does not contain gluten it must Ik* combined with wheat or rye flour 
when ust*d for bread raised with yeast. 


BUCK WHEAT. 


Buckwheat contains less protein than wheat and about the same as 
rye. Buckwheat does not contain gluten and it is therefore not 
adapted for making loaves of bread, though it may l>e used with 
baking powder or soda and sour milk to make biscuit. In making the 
flour the fiber is largely removed. It is more frequently adulterated 
than any other flour, and its adulteration can be ln*st detected bv 
microscopic examination. The dark color imparted by a portion of 
the hulls, which are usua Hy retained in milling buckwheat, is an indi¬ 
cation of its purity. This is not an infallible test, however, as rye 
flour if mixed with buckwheat will also impart a dark color to cakes. 
(Reference No. 20, p. 1174.) 


OTHER MEALS USED IN BREAD MAKING. 

Tt is interesting, though not of general practical use, to know that 
meals or flour are made from a number of vegetable products besides 
cereals. Chestnuts can Ik* hulled and ground and form a flour very 
similar to corn meal in composition. Flour is made from bananas 
and from sov beans; some nuts also, notably the almond, can be 
ground and used to make a kind of biscuit. These are, of course, only 
used under exceptional circumstances. Flour is also made by drying 
and grinding a number of tropical roots and tubers, as cassava and 
taro. 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, TENTH LECTURE. 

Rye Flour. 

Experiment 25 .—Extracting gluten from rye flour. 

Materials needed .—Small bowl, small piece of cheese cloth, rye 
flour, pan of water, spoon. 

Exercise .—Extract the gluten from rye flour in the same manner 
as from wheat flour. (Experiment No. 23, p. 50.) Compare its 
amount and character with that previously obtained from wheat. 


Rye Bread. 


Materials needed .—Mixing bowl, measuring cup and spoons, knife, 
bread pans, bread board, rye flour, wheat flour, milk or water, lard, 
sugar, salt, yeast or leaven. 

h xercise. Make rye bread by the directions in Reference No. 33, 
p. 57, or use leaven to raise it according to the directions in Refer¬ 
ence Xo. 10, p. 24. 

Corn Meal Breads. 

Materials needed .—Corn meal, flour, eggs, milk, salt, sugar, butter, 
baking powder, gem pans, cake cooler, mixing bowl, wooden spoon, 
measuring cup, teaspoon, tablespoon, oven. 

Exercise .— (A) Make corn muffins, following the directions in 
Reference Xo. 31, p. 112. If desired one-fourth cupful of sugar may 
be added and the dough may be baked in shallow pans. This is called 
“johnny cake.” 

(II) Make corn pone and hoecake instead of corn muffins, if the 
school is in a locality where southern-ground meal can be obtained. 


Buckwheat Cakes. 


Materials needed .—Mixing bowl, wooden spoon, measuring cups 
and spoons, buckwheat flour, milk, water, sugar, salt, compressed 
yeast, litmus. 

Exercise .— (1) Set a buckwheat batter to rise over night, using 1 
cupful of milk, 1 teaspoonful of sugar, 1 teaspoonful of salt, one- 
fourth cake of compressed yeast dissolved in one-fourth cupful of 
warm water, or one-half cupful of liquid yeast and about 1 cupful 
of buckwheat flour. Test with litmus before baking. Bake some of 
the dough. Add three-eighths of a teaspoonful of soda to each cupful 
of the remaining dough. Test with litmus. Bake this dough and 
compare these cakes with those raised bv yeast only. 

1. 1/ V V 

(2) Make buckwheat cakes, using the same ingredients as in Xo. 1 
omitting the yeast and using in its stead 1 teaspoonful of baking 
powder. 

Note. —These are to he mixed just before baking and in order to compare 
them with Nos. 1 and 3 they may be made in Exercise 11, p. 50, when Nos. 1 
and .3 will be completed. 


(3) Set buckwheat batter to rise over night with the same ingre¬ 
dients as in Xo. 1, omitting the yeast. Just before baking add three- 
eighths of a teaspoonful of baking soda for each cupful of batter. 
What part do you think the soda plays in making buckwheat cakes? 
Does batter Xo. 3 differ materially from Xo. 2? What part does 
yeast play in making buckwheat cakes? 


56 


Bread Pudding's. 

Matt rial* neetlttl. —Stall* bread, milk, eggs, butter, sugar, chocolate, 
vanilla, baking dishes, double boilers, measuring cups and spoons, 
oven. 

rci .Make bread pudding by the rule in Reference No. 33, p. 
330, and chocolate bread pudding by the rule on page 331. Discard 
the crusts in making the plain pudding though they may be used for 
the chocolate pudding. If it is possible to have each student make an 
entire pudding use the rule in Reference No. 37, p. 51, for the choco¬ 
late pudding and for the plain pudding the following ingredients: 
One-fourth cupful of hot milk, one-eighth cupful of soft bread 
crumbs, one-fourth tablespoonful of butter, one-fourth egg (yolk and 
white), one-half tablespoonful of sugar, 5 drops of vanilla. 

ELEVENTH LECTURE—CHANGES PRODUCED IN THE CONSTIT¬ 
UENTS OF BREAD. 

CHANGES DURING RISING. 


The greatest change in the constituents of bread that takes place 
during the rising is in the carbohydrates, and almost exclusively in 
the sugar. (Reference No. 20, p. 1317.) Owing to the action of. 
ferments, naturally present in the flour or produced by the yeast 
plants, a considerable portion of the starch is changed to sugar. The 
action of yeast also causes some sugar to be completely broken up, 
and of its elements the two substances alcohol and carbon-dioxid gas 
are formed. These, being volatile, are lost. 

The proteids are changed in character, but there is little loss of 
protein. These changes are produced (1) by the yeast plant, which 
requires nitrogenous food. As they can make use of nitrogen com¬ 
pounds that are not proteids very little protein is thus lost. (2) 
Bacteria also feed upon nitrogenous matter, but the principal change 
which they effect in the proteids is the softening or rendering soluble 
of some of the insoluble proteids. This is due partly to ferments 
which they secrete and partly to the action of acids which they form, 
both of which have a softening effect upon a part of the gluten. 
Acids, naturally present in the flour to a slight extent, also aid in this 
softening of the gluten. When the gluten is thus changed it is mate¬ 
rially injured for bread-making purposes, as it loses its elastic quali¬ 
ties to a considerable extent, and thus will not hold the iras formed. 
Sour dough will sometimes lx* seen to sink or “ fall ” after becoming 
light owing to this fact. (Reference No. 5, pp. 19-21, 33.) 


THE SHORT PROCESS VERSUS THE LONC PROCESS. 


By the “ short process " is meant setting the bread, for instance, in 
the morning, with a large enough quantity of yeast to raise the bread 
in four or five hours. By the “ long process " is meant setting a sponge 
usually over night and letting the sponge and dough have a total of 
twelve or fifteen hours for rising. During the long process organisms, 
ferments, and acids have time to accomplish a greater amount of 
change in the dough. The loss of nutrients in the short process need 
not exceed more than 1.5 or 2 per cent, whereas in the long process it 
may he as high as G or 8 per cent. (References No. G, p. 352; No. 5, p. 
34.) Bread made bv the long process has been found to have twice 
as much acid formed as that made by the short process. On tin* other 
hand, if care is taken to prevent the dough from becoming too warm 
and the other necessary precautions are observed, the dough need not 
sour. It is frequently convenient to have the bread baked as early 
in the day as is possible, and considerable time is gained by allowing 
the first rising to take place over night. The decision as to the 
method pursued must rest on the question whether materials or time 
are most to be economized in each individual case. 


CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE DURING BAKING. 

The proteids are coagulated, and so they are presumably a little less 
easily digested than when in liquid form. The starch grains in the 
crumb are ruptured and cooked, making the starch more digestible. 
In the crust the starch is dextrinized (Lecture 4, Topic 4 B, p. 25, and 
Experiment ID, p. 41) and partly caramelized. The fat in the crust 
is changed somewhat, but the digestibility of the bread is not much 
affected by this, as fat is not present to a large extent. Volatile sub¬ 
stances, such as alcohol formed by the yeast plant, are driven oil by 
evaporation. Not as much water is lost as would appear by contrast¬ 
ing an apparently dry piece of bread with the moist, sticky dough, for 
much of the water has been chemically combined with the gluten and 
will be retained by it even when the bread becomes quite stale. Car¬ 
bon dioxid passes out of the loaf and is replaced by air. The yeast is 
killed bv the heat of the oven in well-baked bread and usually all 
other organisms also. (Reference No. G, p. 349, paragraphs 1, 2.) 

STALE BREAD. 


When bread is kept for any length of time the air-cell walls shrink 
and adhere together more closely than at first. Little water is lost, 
but it combines chemically with the solid portion, so that the bread 
appears drier than when fresh. This makes it necessary to chew it 
more before swallowing, and this thorough mixing with saliva, as well 


as the fart that it dors not gum up when chewed, may account for the 
easier digestibility attributed to stale bread. 

If stale bread is placed in the oven a short time some of tin* water 
turns to vapor and expands the cell walls again, making the bread 
appear moist and very like fresh bread. (Reference No. 7. p. 172.) 
The greater amount of moisture originally in bread the longer it keeps 
its moist, fresh character. 

While the acid in fresh bread is less than that in dough, as bread is 
kept the acid sometimes increases again. (Reference No. 5, p. *21.) 
The forming of acid in bread after baking is probably due to the fact 
that the spores of some acid-forming bacteria will resist the heat of 
the center of a loaf of baking bread for an hour and if favorable con¬ 
ditions for growth occur they will develop in the bread. 

U8ES TO WHICH STALE BREAD MAY BE PUT. 

Making (a) toast (Reference No. 3*2, p. G7), (b) soft crumbs for 
scalloped dishes (Reference No. 34, p. 75), (c) dry crumbs for cover¬ 
ing fried food (Reference No. 34, p. 75), (</) griddle cakes (Refer¬ 
ence No. 33, p. 79), (c) puddings (Reference No. 33, pp. 330, 331). 
(/) stuffing for fish (Reference No. 34, p. 163), and meat or poultry 
(Reference No. 34. p. 258), ([/) croustades (References No. 33, p. 321; 
No. 16, p. 353), (A) croutons and soup sticks (References No. 33, p. 
130; No. 10, p. 353), (/) omelets (Reference No. 33, p. 1)0), (j) home¬ 
made breakfast cereals (Reference No. 20, p. 31), (/*) muffins and 
griddle cakes (Experiment and practice work, Lecture 11, p. 59), 
(/) bread (Experiment and practice work, Lecture 12, p. 03), ( m) 
cake (Reference No. 32, p. 472). 

T1IE CARE OF BREAD. 


The causes of spoiling are (1) the growth of bacteria in the loaf 
forming acids or, in rare cases, ropiness (Reference No. 10, p. 31); 

(2) the growth of molds (References No. 10, p. 31 ; No. 17, pp. 32-39) ; 

(3) the evaporation of water, leaving the bread dry and hard. 

To avoid trouble due to these causes cool bread quickly (Reference 
No. 10, j). 29) and keep it cool in a clean, tightly covered receptacle. 
The bread lx>x or crock must In* sterilized occasionally (Reference No. 
10, p. 32) by letting it stand full of boiling water in which a little 
sal soda (sodium carbonate) has been dissolved, or by exposing the 
whole interior to direct sunlight for several hours after a thorough 
washing. This is to kill bacteria and molds which will surelv find 
their way in time into the receptacle, and unless it is well cared for 
will grow and multiply, attacking the bread and causing it to spoil. 


59 


EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, ELEVENTH LECTURE. 


Freshening- Stale Bread. 

Materials needed. —One loaf stale bread, 1 slice of stale bread for 
each student, 1 oven, 1 steamer and kettle, 1 cup, plates for serving, 
butter for serving. 

Exercise. —Freshen a loaf of stale bread by placing it in a mod¬ 
erate oven for 15 minutes, or until heated through. Freshen slices of 
stale bread according to the directions given in Reference No. 34, 
p. 7G. 

Stale Bread Muffins. 

Materials needed. —Stale bread, milk, egg, flour, salt, sugar, baking 
powder, butter, gem pans, mixing bowl, spoon, double boiler, meas¬ 
uring cups and spoons, oven, plates and knives for serving. 

Exercise. —Soak 2 cupfuls of stale bread (crust and crumb) which 
has been cut in small pieces in 1 cupful of scalded milk. When well 
softened, beat the mixture until it is smooth, then add one-third cup 
of water, 1 egg, and 14 cupfuls of flour to which has been added one- 
half teaspoonful of salt, 2 tablespoonfuls of sugar, 4 teaspoonfuls of 
baking powder. When these are blended, add 1 tablespoonful of but¬ 
ter, melted, and bake in ten greased muffin pans from 25 to 30 min¬ 
utes. If only crusts are used, the muffins will be dense and too moist; 
if only crumb is used, the muffins will be better than whim anv crust 
is used, but a mixture of crust and crumb in the proportion found in 
the loaf will give satisfactory results. 

Stale Bread Griddle Cakes. 

Materials needed. —Stale bread, milk, butter, eggs, flour, salt, bak¬ 
ing powder, buckwheat batter started in Lesson 10, baking soda, a 
griddle, salt pork or other fat to grease the griddle, teaspoons, table¬ 
spoons, measuring cups, knives, one fork, and plates, knives, and 
forks for serving. 

Exercise. — (A) Ma ke stale bread griddle cakes by the rule given 
in Reference No. 33, p. 79, or, if possible, have each student make 
them using the rule in Reference No. 37, p. 68. 

(B) Make buckwheat griddle cakes, using the batters started in 
the practice work of the tenth lecture. 

Indian Pudding 1 . 

Materials needed. —A hay box, one 6-quart and one 2-quart covered 
agate pail for the hay box, Indian meal, molasses, ginger, milk, salt, 
teaspoon, measuring cups, saucers and spoons for serving. 

Exercise. —Make Indian pudding using 24 cupfuls of water, 4 cup¬ 
fuls of milk, two-thirds cupful of Indian meal, 2 teaspoonfuls of salt, 


GO 


1 tc*as|HK)iiful of ginger, 1 cupful of molasses. Boil all the ingre¬ 
dients together for 10 minutes and cook in a hay box over night. Kill 
the outer pail partly full of boiling water and put the small pail in 
side of it. The hot water serves as a source of heat. Serve the 
pudding hot. 


Care of Bread Box or Crock. 

Materials needed .—One bread box or crock in which bread has l>een 
kept, washing soda, boiling water, direct sunlight for several hours. 

Exercise .—Wash the receptacle, scald it or put it in the sun. (Ix*c- 
ture 11, paragraph 4, p. 58.) 

Study of Molds. 

Materials needed .—One magnifying glass, 1 microscope one-sixth 
inch or one-eighth inch objective and No. 1 or No. 2 eyepiece, a piece 
of moldy bread, 2 inoculating needles, a microscope slide (plain) and 
cover slip, a hard pencil, and paper. 

Exercise .— (A) Examine mold under a magnifying glass. Draw 
a picture of it, showing mycelium or thread-like stems and spore 
cases (black dots). 

(B) Examine a small portion taken up with needles and mounted 
in water on a plain slide. Make a drawing of what you see. Notice 
the opening spore cases. 

TWELFTH LECTURE—COST OF BREAD. CAUSES OF IMPERFECTIONS, 

FANCY BREADS. 

COST. 

The price of bread varies greatly in different localities and often 
bears little relation to its food value, and no very close relation to 
the cost of the materials. The cost of bread is, on an average, about 
double the price of the materials, not including fuel for baking. 
Where a fire, such as gas, gasoline, or oil, must be maintained merely 
to heat the oven for bread the price of the fuel should be included. 
Where a coal or wood fire is maintained for other purposes as well 
as bread making there is greater economy in baking at home. When 
possible different processes involving the use of a fire should be car¬ 
ried on at the same time, so that while the oven is in use for baking 
the top of the stove is used for boiling or heating irons, etc. 

Three pounds of flour will make a little over 4 pounds of bread. 
By obtaining the local retail prices for flour the price of each loaf can 
easily Ik* estimated not including fuel for baking. With flour at .4 
cents a pound, materials for bread cost about 3 cents a loaf, unless 
milk is used. (References No. 15, p. TO; No. 19, pp. 392, 393; No. 10, 
p. 39.) 


61 


Table 1) shows the relation between the cost of the digestible nutri¬ 
ents in white bread and some other common foods at certain assumed 
values per pound. 


Table 1). —Cost of digestible nutrients in bread and other foods at certain as¬ 
sumed values per pound. 


Material. 

Total di¬ 
gestible nu¬ 
trients in 

1 pound. 

Assume! 
average 
cost of 1 
pound. 

Number of 
pounds that 
will furnish 
the same 
amount of 
digestible nu¬ 
trients as 1 
pound of 
bread. 

Cost of the 
amount that 
will furnish the 
same digesti¬ 
ble nutrients 
as 1 pound of 
bread. 

White bread_ . ... 

0.621 

Cents. 

6 

1.00 

Cents. 

6.00 

Oraham bread . _______________ 

. 569 

6 

1.09 

6.64 

Entire-wheat bread __ 

.565 

6 

1.10 

6.60 

Beefsteak _ . ..... 

.328 

18 

1.89 

34.02 

Potatoes, raw_ _ . 

.207 

1.5 

3.00 

4.50 

Dried peas... ..._ . 

.824 

7 

.76 

5.25 

Dried beans... _ 

.796 

6 

.78 

4.68 

Macaroni. ... . _ 

.856 

12 

.72 

8.64 

Crackers_ _ _ 

.889 

5 

.70 

3.50 


CAUSES OF l.M PERFECTIONS IN BREAD. 


(A) Large holes in bread may be caused by (1) lack of kneading. 
The holes will coalesce in time and if the dough is well kneaded the 
second time these will be kneaded out. (2) If allowed to ferment too 
long acids which develop in the dough, or are normally present in 
the flour, will act upon the gluten, softening it and thus reducing the 
tenacity of the flour so that bubbles will tend to coalesce more than 
normally. (Reference No. 5, p. 33.) Gas will also be lost and bread 
not as light as if fermented the proper length of time, which is until 
the dough doubles in size. (3) Too moist a dough (seen often in 
beaten bread). This causes a hole that is of the nature of a crack or 
fissure. (4) Baking in an oven which is too hot, especially at the 
first. This causes holes just under the crust. 

(B) If the bread crumbles instead of cutting cleanly under the 
knife it is said to be due to the use of harsh, dry flours, or to being 
overworked, i. e., fermented too long. 

(C) Bitter bread may be caused by partly spoiled grain or an ab¬ 
normal fungus growth in the flour, or by using brewers 1 yeast. 

(I)) Heavy bread may have several causes. (1) The commonest 
is insufficient rising. (2) Underbaked bread may be heavy. (3) 
Poor yeast is also a cause of this failure. (4) Poor, weak flours, de- 

4 / 

ficient in gluten, can not make light bread, as the flour lacks tenacity 
to hold the bubbles of gas evolved during fermentation. (5) Awk¬ 
ward handling of the risen dough when ready for the oven, by reason 
of which the bread is jarred, causing the bubbles to break and the gas 
to escape. 




























(K) Sour bread is caused by tin* growth of acid*forming bacteria. 
This growth is most vigorous after the yeast growth lx‘gins to de¬ 
crease. Therefore, overferinentation is one cause of sour bread. It 
is very likely to sour if made in unclean utensils, as they contain 
bacteria left from former bread making and a large numl>er are thus 
“ planted ** in the dough. Keeping the bread too warm tends to 
increase the growth of bacteria. (Reference No. 18, pp. 362, 363.) 

(F) Lack of care after bread is baked may cause moldy or ropy 
bread. (Reference No. 18, pp. 361, 365.) 


BI NS AND OTI1KK SWEKT DREADS. 

Runs and other sweet breads raised by veast are very similar in 
composition and in the process employed in making them. As they 
contain much more sugar and shortening than ordinary bread they re¬ 
quire a longer time to rise. (lecture 7, paragraph 1, p. 38.) Par¬ 
ticular care must therefore be taken to allow them to become light 
enough before baking them. When sufficiently risen they will be 
fully twice their original size. 

Run dough can Ik* molded into a variety of shapes and used for 
plain buns, cinnamon buns, hot cross-buns, brioche, coffee cake, and 
raised doughnuts, although slightly different formulas are usually 
given for these different breads. 


EXPERIMENT AM) PRACTICE 


WORK, TWELFTH LECTURE. 


Cost of Bread Compared with Other Foods. 

Material* needed .—Pencil and paper and notebook. 

Exercise ,—The lecturer should suggest problems for the pupils to 
work out regarding the cost of nutrients in some common foods, such 
as eggs, milk, oatmeal, or rice, at current local prices as compared 
with the price of bread (use Reference No. 8 for obtaining the com¬ 
position of these foods). Pupils should also compute the cost of 
the materials for white bread at local prices. Compare the result 
with the above prices and make a table of results similar to Table 1) 
in Lecture 12, p. 61. This work can be carried on while the breads 
made in this lesson are rising. 

Buns. 


Materials needed. —Milk, butter, flour, yeast, sugar, powdered cin¬ 
namon, dried currants, eggs, salt, mixing bowl, spoon, gem pans, 
bread board. 

Exercise .—Make buns, using the following recipe, with several 
times the amount of yeast given in order to hasten the rising enough 
to permit it to be accomplished in the time devoted to this lesson. 


63 


Recipe for Buns. 


Make a sponge of 1 cupful of milk, three-eighths cupful of sugar, 
1 egg, one-fourth teaspoonful of salt, one-fourth cake of compressed 


yeast, softened in one-fourth cupful of warm water, 2 
flour. Follow the directions in Reference No. 34, p. 74, 
mainder of the process. 


cupfuls of 
for the re- 


Cinnamon Buns. 


Materials needed .—The quantity of bun dough which the above 
recipe makes, dried currants, brown sugar, butter, powdered cinna¬ 
mon, gem pans, pastry board, rolling pin, knife. 

Exercise .—Roll the bun dough into a rectangular sheet one-fourth 
inch thick. Spread it with one-half cupful of butter (softened), 1 
cupful of washed and dried currants, 2 tablespoon fills of cinnamon, 
and 1 cupful of brown sugar. Roll the dough as in making jelly roll. 
Cut the roll into 1-inch lengths. Turn these up on their sides and 
place them in greased gem pans. When very light bake them in a 
moderate oven for 45 minutes. After they have baked 20 minutes 
pour one-half teaspoonful of molasses over each bun. Repeat this 
at the end of 30 minutes. 

Note. —Double the quantity of bun dough in the above recipe should be set to 
rise over night and extra yeast added in the morning when the sponge is made 
into dough, one-lialf to be used for buns and one-half for cinnamon buns. 


Bread Made with Stale Bread. 

Materials needed .—Stale bread, mil!:, salt, sugar, lard, flour, yeast, 
double boiler, mixing bowl, knife, spoons, and cup for measuring, 
bread pans, bread board, oven, cake cooler. 

Exercise .—Cut off the crusts from stale bread, cut the crumb into 
small pieces and cook with an equal measure of scalding hot milk or 
boiling water in a double boiler for 10 minutes. Cool the mixture 
until lukewarm. The bread and milk or water may then be treated 
as plain milk or water would b? in making bread, the only difference 
in the recipe for this bread and any other being that less flour will 
be required to make a dough. 


THIRTEENTH LECTURE—BREAD RAISED BY OTHER AGENTS 

THAN YEAST. 

GAS OBTAINED 15V THE USE OF CHEMICALS. 


Acids and Soda. 

An acid from the chemist’s standpoint is a body which will combine 
chemically with alkaline substances to form a salt. The common 
acids are all sour substances and will turn certain blue vegetable colors 


ml (illustrate with litmus). Acids also turn ml cabbage water 
violet; alkalis turn it green. 

Making so<la, called also l>icarl>onate of soda, is an alkaline sub¬ 
stance. When an acid is added to soda bubbles are formed and a neu¬ 
tral substance results, which is neither an acid nor an alkali, and 
which is ctilled a salt. The bubbles are carbon-diox id gas the same as 
that formed by yeast. Any acids will cause this gas to In* formed when 
added to soda, but some acids leave injurious compounds and some, 
such as vinegar, are found in connection with material that would 
give an objectionable taste to food. Any harmless acid which docs 
not leave an unwholesome compound or an undesirable flavor could 
Ik* used with soda to raise breads. Some acids, however, are socially 
adapted to the purpose, causing the formation of gas quickly enough 
for convenience and not so quickly as to allow of its being dissipated 
before the food can Ik* cooked, as is the case with hvdrochloric acid. 

w 

(Reference No. 10, p. 340.) 


Carbonate of Ammonia. 

Carlionateof ammonia is a very volatile substance and when heated 
in dough is all turned to gas and steam, so that there is no residue. 
It is not often usi*d alone at the present time to raise breads or cakes, 
but is uml by bakers to neutralize sour dough. When combination 
with an acid takes place an ammonium salt is left in the dough. This 
practice is not desirable, as it is considered unwholesome to have this 
salt in dough. 

Baking: Powders. 


Making powders are made of soda and some substance containing 
an acid. There are three general classes on the market. 

(1) Tartrate powders, which are made of soda and cream of tartar 
(which contains tartaric acid) in the right proportions, with alxmt 
‘JO per cent starch added to separate the grains of soda and cream of 
tartar, so that they will not combine readily before being put into the 
dough. (References No. 7, p. lf>8, paragraph 12, and No. 20, pp. 
1304, 1305.) 

(2) Phosphate powders, which are made of soda and acid phos¬ 
phate of lime (which contains phosphoric acid). Reference No. 20, 
pp. 1806, 1807.) 

(3) Alum powders, which are made of soda and alum (which is 
a sulphuric acid salt which acts as an acid). (Reference No. 20, pp. 
1307-1300.) Some powders are made containing more than one acid, 
as it is thought that this increases their efficiency. (Reference No. 7, 
p. 163.) 






Substitutes for Baking 1 Powders. 


Soda combined with an unobjectionable acid may be used as a sub¬ 
stitute for baking powder. .Vs an excess of soda renders breads un¬ 
wholesome and injures the flavor, and an excess of acid makes them 
sour, it is necessary to know the right proportion in which to com¬ 
bine the soda and acids. 1 his varies with different materials. The 
proportion of soda to several acids or acid containing materials which 
will give the greatest amount of gas (Reference No. 1G, pp. 346, 347), 
and leave a minimum of soda-or acid behind is as follows: 

Amount of baking .soda and arid required for leavening. 

1 teaspoonful soda requires 2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar. 

1 teaspoonful soda requires 1 cupful thick sour milk. 

1 teaspoonful soda requires 1 cupful molasses. 

1 teaspoonful soda requires scant one-fourth cupful normal hydrochloric-acid 
solution (78 cubic centimeters of concentrated hydrochloric acid in 1 liter of 
water constitutes normal hydrochloric acid). 

In substituting cream of tartar and soda for baking powder use 
soda in the proportion of one-third the total baking powder, measur¬ 
ing it quite scant, and use cream of tartar in the proportion of two- 
thirds of the amount of baking powder. 

In substituting soda and sour milk for baking powder pay no at¬ 
tention to the amount of baking powder in the recipe but use one tea- 
spoonful of soda to each cupful of sour milk. If molasses and sour 
milk are both used, take one teaspoonful of soda to each cupful of 
sour milk plus molasses. In using hydrochloric acid use soda in the 
proportion of one-third of the amount of baking powder, and to each 
teaspoonful of soda add one-fourth cupful, sca .t, of normal hydro¬ 
chloric-acid solution which mav be prepared by diluting 78 cubic 
centimeters concentrated hvdrochloric acid with 1 liter of water. 

When baking soda is moistened and heated a considerable quantity 
of carbon-dioxid gas is given oh' without the addition of an acid. It is 
thus seen that if a greater proportion of soda be used than that which 
will be neutralized by the acid an additional amount of gas will be 
available. The residue left after moistening and heating baking soda 
is carbonate of soda, commonly known as washing soda. If eaten 
in large amounts this may have a deleterious effect on the digestion. 
Whether the increased lightness of the breads would not increase their 
ease of digestion so much that the ill effect of a small amount of car- 
bonate of soda would be counterbalanced may be open to question. 
An excess of soda gives the bread an undesirable vellow color and an 
unpleasant taste. The effect of any residue is, of course, increased 
when breads raised by chemicals form a large part of the diet. 

37839—Bull. 200—08-5 



C)G 


BREAD RAISED l»V AIR. 

Air may in* introduced into dough to make it porous. W hen the 
dough is heated the entangled air i> expanded causing the dough to 
rise. Aerated bread is made bv forcing carbon dioxid into dough 
mechanically. It lacks the flavor produced by the other products of 
fermentation. (References No. 0, p. 353; No. 9. p. 194; No. 10, p. 29.) 
A familiar example of bread raised by air is found in beaten biscuit. 
(Reference No. 10, p. 345.) 

EXPERIMENT AND PRACTIC E WORK, THIRTEENTH LECTt'KE. 

Effect of Acid on Soda. 

Experiment 20. Material* needed .—Bicarbonate of soda, vinegar, 
sour milk, cream of tartar, molasses, acid phosphate of lime, ammonia 
alum, normal solution of hydrochloric acid, cold and hot water, ten 
thin glass tumblers or beakers, ten teaspoons, limewater, flask, rubber 
cork fitted with bent glass tula*. 

Exercize .—Put into nine of the glasses one-half teaspoonful of 
soda. Have nine students each take a glass. Two students take 
cream of tartar, one portion of which is dissolved in cold water, and 
the others one of the acid substances, vinegar, sour milk, acid phos¬ 
phate of lime, ammonia alum, or hydrochloric acid. Have the class 
watch while each one in turn adds a little of the acid substance 
to the soda, which mav first l>e dissolved in a little warm water. The 
cold cream of tartar solution should be added to soda which has 
been dissolved in cold water. The other lot of cream of tartar is to 
lie dissolved in hot water and added to the soda, which must also be 
dissolved in hot water. Compare the rapidity of their chemical ac¬ 
tion under the influence of heat and cold. 

In a flask, fitted as described in Reference No. 30, p. 127, add boil¬ 
ing water to one-half teaspoonful of soda and observe if any gas is 
given off. Add cream of tartar to this soda when no more gas is 
coming off and observe what gas is formed by the action of acids on 
soda and by the application of heat and water to soda. 

Problem .—I low much soda and cream of tartar should l>e used in 
place of the baking powder in the following recipes? (1) One pint 
of flour. 4 teaspoonfuls of baking powder, 1 cupful of milk, salt, and 
shortening. (2) Five cupfuls of flour. 7 teaspoonfuls of baking 
powder, 2 cupfuls of milk, salt, and shortening. How much soda and 
sour milk would be used as a substitute for the baking powder and 
sweet milk? (Lecture 13, paragraph 0, p. Go.) 


67 


Household Test for Adulteration of Baking- Powder with an Excess of 

Starch. 

Experiment 27. Materials needed —Tartrate baking powder of a 
reliable brand, tartrate powder of another brand, two 6-inch test 
tubes, water. 

Ext rcise .—Boil 1 teaspoonful of a standard brand of baking pow¬ 
der for 1 minute in 1 teaspoonful of water in a test tube after the 
gas has ceased to come off. I)o the same with the other brand to 
notice if the liquid is the same thickness. If thicker the powder had 
an excess of starch. This will show if there has been any consider- 
able addition of starch. 


Test for the Efficiency of Various Baking Powders. 

Experiment 28. Materials needed. —A fresh sample of a standard 
brand of tartrate, phosphate, and alum powders, three glasses, flour, 
water, measuring cups. 

Exercise. —Three students each make a batter of one-fourth cupful 
of flour into which has been thoroughly mixed one-half teaspoonful 
of one of the powders and one-eighth cupful of warm water. These 
must be mixed at the same time and very quickly and thoroughly 
beaten and then allowed to stand in a warm place for half an hour. 
The powder which raises the batter highest is the most efficient. 


Biscuit. 


Materials needed. —Pastry flour, butter or lard, baking powder, 
thick sour milk, sweet milk, baking sheets or plates, rolling pin, pas¬ 
try board, flour dredger, mixing bowls, knives, teaspoons, table¬ 
spoons, and measuring cups. 


Exercise. —Make biscuit using the rule in Reference No. 38, p. 70 or 
71, or, if possible, have each student make them using the rule in 
Reference No. 37. p. (50. In this case have some students use baking 
powder and sweet milk, some use soda and cream of tartar, some soda 
and sour milk. Have the liquid all water in some, half milk and half 
water in others, and let some students use butter, some lard, and 
some half and half of each for shortening. Compare the results. 


Maryland Beaten Biscuit. 

Materials needed. —Flour, lard, salt, milk, water, pastry board, 
rolling pin, flour dredger, mixing bowl, knife, teaspoon, tablespoon, 
measuring cup. 

Exercise. —Make beaten biscuit by the rule given in Reference 
No. 38, p. 77. 

Note.— Have bun dough made after the recipe on page G3 set to rise at night 
to be used next day in making raised doughnuts, or set a sponge as described in 
Reference No. 33, p. 82 for “ raised doughnuts.” 


68 


FOURTEENTH LECTURE—COOKING IN DEEP FAT. 

THE FAT I'SKD. 

The fat used for deep frying may Ik* lard, rendered beef, or fresh 
pork fat, the better grade commercial culinary fats, cotton-seed oil, or 
a mixture of any of these fats. Rendered mutton fat lias a strong 
flavor, and is not satisfactory for cooking. Fats rendered from salt 
or smoked meats are not suitable for deep frying and butter burns too 
easily to admit of its use. When the fat has been used carefully, viz, 
not allowed to become too hot, or when nothing of very strong flavor 
has been cooked in it, such as fish, it may be clarified (References 
No. 33, p. *23: No. 30. p. 218) and used again and again. Each time 
it is used, however, it scorches a little and some bits of the foods 
which are cooked burn brown, and even though the amount of such 
changes is so small they are not noticed at the time the fat will 
finally become brown and strong flavored and is then no longer fit 
for cooking, but may be used for making soap. 

THE TEMPERATURE. 

For frying uncooked mixtures, such as doughnuts and batters or 
raw potatoes, etc., fat should not l)e so hot as for frying materials 
which have been previously cooked, such as croquettes, or for frying 
foods that require but little cooking, such as oysters. The tempera¬ 
ture of fat for frying is 3<>0° to 400° F. Test fat with a thermom- 
eter constructed for such use or with a piece of bread as described 
in References No. 38, pp. 22,23; No. 51, |>. 74. 

If fat l>ecomes overheated it changes chemically, separating into 
other compounds, among which are glycerin and fatty acids and an 
acrid body called acrolein, which is very noticeable, as it makes the 
eyes smart. Some of these bodies, particularly acrolein, are irritating 
to the body and it is probable that the unwholesomeness attributed 
to fried food is in part due to the fact that fat is so often overheated 
in the course of frying. (References No. 31, p. 21(i; No. 43, pp. 
85, 8G.) 

The temperature should be maintained throughout the frying, for 
the food will become greasy if the fat is cooled. (Reference No. 43, 

p. 100.) 

PREPARATION OF FOOD FOR FRYING. 

Many foods are dipped in dried bread crumbs and egg l>efore 
frying. This forms a coating over the food, holds it together, and 
keeps out the grease. Foods to be thus treated should be covered with 
sifted dry bread crumbs (Reference No. 34. p. 75) dipped in egg 
which has l>een beaten a little and mixed with a tablespoonful of 
cold water, and again rolled in the crumbs. Except for sweet food 
the crumbs should be seasoned with a little salt and pepper. (Refer¬ 
ence No. 33, p. *23.) 




60 


CARA M EI.IZATION. 

The 1 irowning of foods is due to the fact that at certain tempera¬ 
tures foods become slightly burned or charred, a change which mav 
be called tlie first stage of combustion, and which in the case of sugars 
is known as caramelization. Sugars, for instance, on being heated to 
4*20" F. change in color and flavor. A chemical change has taken 
place in the sugar, and water, formed from oxygen and hydrogen of 
the sugar, has been separated from it and at the same time caramel 
has been formed. A similar change takes place in starch when 
heated to a high enough temperature (Reference Xo. 44, pp. 91, 92, 
and Xo. 31, p. TO, paragraph 126.) The chemical structure of cara¬ 
mel and the reactions involved in the formation of caramel are known, 
but are too complicated for study in this connection. 


EXPERIMENT AND PRACTICE WORK, FOX'RTEENTII LECTURE. 


Tests for the Temperature of Fat. 

Experiment 20. Materials needed .—Three pounds of fat for fry¬ 
ing, a Scotch frying bowl, pieces of stale bread, a cooking ther¬ 
mometer which will register 500° F. or more, butter, rendered beef 
fat, hard. 

Exercise .—Perform the experiments in Reference Xo. 31, pp. 216, 
217, paragraphs 351, 352. 


Preparing- Crumbs for Fried Food. 

Materials needed .—Stale bread, food chopper or rolling pin, and 
hardwood board, roasting pan or pie plates, oven, sieve. 

Exercise .—Prepare the crumbs as described in Reference Xo. 34, 

1). 75. 

Using- Dry Crumbs for Homemade Cereal Food. 

Materials needed .—Stale bread, stale cake, molasses, sugar and 
cream, saucers and spoons for serving, food chopper or rolling pin 
and hardwood board, baking sheets or roasting pan. 

Exercise .—Prepare homemade cereal breakfast food as described 
in Reference Xo. 20, p. 31. using bread and cake and starting the 
drying of bread dipped in molasses and water. 


Raised Doughnuts. 


Materials needed .—Sponge previously set, flour, rolling pin, bread 
board, flour dredger, doughnut cutter, Scotch frying bowl, 3 pounds 
of fat for frying, unglazed paper, mixing bowl, wooden spoon. 

Exercise .—Make the doughnuts according to the directions given 
in Reference Xo. 33, p. 82. 


Doughnuts with Bnking Powder. 


Material* needed. —Flour, salt, baking powder, eggs, milk, butter, 
sugar, powdered cinnamon, nutmeg and grater, rolling pin, bread 
board. Hour dredger, doughnut cutter, mixing bowl, wooden spoon, 
knife, teaspoon, tablespoon, measuring cup. 

Ii.eercise .—Make doughnuts No. 1 by the recipe given in Reference 

N «k 88, I*. 8L 

Rice Croquettes. 

Materials needed. —Rice, milk, salt, eggs, butter, crumbs for cov¬ 
ering fried food, 1 k>w 1 of fat for frying, unglazed paper, wire spoon. 

Exercise .—Make rice croquettes, using the directions given in Ref¬ 

erence No. 84, p. 281. 

FIFTEENTH LECTURE—DOUGH RAISED WITH EGGS. ICING FOR 

CAKE. 

In some cases dough is raised in part or wholly by means of air 
beaten into eggs, the egg albumin forming bubbles filled with air. 
When in the oven the cold air expands, making the mixture porous 
and light. Cake is an example of this. Cakes are of two general 
kinds—(1) sponge cakes and (2) butter cakes. 

SrONGK CAKES. 

These cakes never have butter in them and are frequently raised 
entirely by means of eggs. The eggs usually provide also the only 
moisture used, but from motives of economy, when eggs are expensive, 
water is sometimes added and baking powder used. 

Sponge cakes are mixed differently from butter cakes and should 
be baked in a cooler oven and about one and one-fourth times as 
long. The tests and rules for baking are the same for sponge cakes 
and butter cakes. 

BUTTER CAKES. 

The effect on dough of shortening is to make it tender and brittle 
instead of tough and elastic. Fats differ in their shortening power 
(Reference No. 10, p. 047. paragraph 5), but butter is genera uy used 
in cake on account of its flavor. 

In gingerbread and other highly spiced cakes pure rendered beef 
or veal fat may be substituted for butter, as the flavor of the fat will 
not Ik? so evident as in other kinds of cake. 


C'< X >KI ES. 


Any butter cake recipe can be used for cookies if only one-third to 
one-half the amount of milk called for is used. Roll the dough out 
on a floured board. Cookies should bake in a slow oven for eight to 
ten minutes. 

GENERAL RULES FOR MAKING CAKE. 


Materials Used. 


Pastry flour will make lighter and more tender cake than standard 
flour. If standard flour is used take two tablespoonfuls less for each 
cupful measured. Fine granulated or powdered sugar should be used. 
Brown sugar may be used for dark fruit cake. Much variety can be 
made in cakes by introducing fruit, nuts, spices, different flavoring ex¬ 
tracts, or chocolate into the dough, and for white cakes using only the 
whites of the eggs, or for yellow cakes a larger number of yolks than 


whites. The materials should all be good of their kind. 


Preparing- the Pans. 

Grease them well with butter or lard, or line them with buttered 
or paraffin paper. Bright, new pans will not need to be buttered for 
sponge cakes and if left unbuttered a more delicate crust is formed. 


Mixing. 

This is done differently in sponge cakes and butter cakes. (Refer¬ 
ences No. 34, p. 372; No. 33, p. 413.) 


Baking. 

If a wood or coal fire is used have a small or moderate-size fire, 
but one which will last without much addition through the baking. 
Regulate the oven long enough before the cake is to go in to have the 
dampers adjusted, as they are to remain throughout the baking. If 
this is not done the dampers must be changed to regulate the heat 
during the baking, and the cake will not be so well baked. For the 
time of baking different cakes and the tests for baking see References 
No. 34, p. 370; No. 51, p. 110. 


Removing from the Pans. 

Most cakes can be at once removed from the pan when baked, but 

very rich cakes and dark fruit cake will be liable to break unless first 
%/ 

allowed to stand about five minutes. (References No. 34. pp. 309-373; 
No. 33, pp. 412-410.) 



l ltosriN<;s U|( 1C1NC1K AND KILLINGS. 


Frostings or icings may ta made (1) of a sirup made from granu¬ 
lated sugar and water poured, tailing hot, on tauten whites of cgg^: 
or (2) by adding raw confectioners* or pulverized sugar to taaten 
whites or yolks of eggs; or (3) by pouring tailing hot water or milk 
over finely pulverized sugar. 

When icing is made by the second method some cooks beat the egg 
white until very stilF, others beat it only a very little. If the egg is 
slightly beaten the icing has a different texture and remains soft 
longer. 

Icings should be soft enough to spread evenly, but not so soft as to 
run off the cake. A good test for this is to make a cut into the frost¬ 
ing in the bowl with a knife. If the cut just disappears in one min¬ 
ute the frosting is the right consistency. If the cut closes sooner the 
frosting is too soft; if not smoothed together in one minute, it is too 
stiff. If frosting is put on the cake a little too stiff, so that it is rough 
when spread, smooth it with a few strokes of a knife dipped into boil¬ 
ing water. 

In frosting a cake the loaf is usually turned upside down and the 
bottom and sides are covered. This seals the pores and makes the 
cake keep moist longer. If only one surface is to ta covered ice 
the top. 

A great variety of frostings can ta made from the three funda¬ 
mental frostings by adding different flavorings or coloring matter, 
i References N<>. 84, pp. 884, 885; No. 33. pp. !*2J>. Ho.) 


EXl'KRI MENT AND 1*RA( TICK WORK. FIFTEENTH LECTURE. 


Sponge Cakes. 

Materials needed. —Eggs, sugar, lemon, flour, salt, mixing bowls, 
egg beaters, small bowls or plates to beat eggs on, wooden spoons, 
measuring cups, teaspoons, tablespoons, knives, small bread pans, 
cream of tartar, vanilla, cake coolers. 1 angel cake pan. 

Exercise .—Each student make a sponge cake using the directions 
given in Reference No. 37, p. 70. One student may substitute a white 
sponge cake (angel cake) using whites of 1*2 eggs, IT cupfuls of 
sugar. 1} teaspoonfuls cream of tartar, 1 teaspoonful of vanilla, and 
1 cupful and 1 tablespoonful of flour. Mix it in the order the ingre¬ 
dients are given, using an egg whisk to mix with. The eggs should be 
beaten until nearly but not quite stiff. Bake it in an unbuttered pan 
or one lined with unbuttered paper for 55 minutes, keeping a pan of 
boiling water in the oven under the cake during the first 45 minutes. 
When done, if no paper is used in the cake pan, turn the pan upside 
down on a cake cooler or wire rack until the cake is cold. 


73 


One student may make a sponge cake using fewer eggs and adding 
water and baking powder for comparison. (Reference No. 33, p. 
41G.) 

Butter Cakes. 

Materials needed. —Flour, butter, sugar, eggs, vanilla, chocolate, 
milk, nuts, raisins, currants, citron, almond extract, nutmeg, an oven, 
small bread pans, mixing bowls, measuring cups, teaspoons, table¬ 
spoons, knives, wooden spoons, egg beaters, saucepans for melting the 
cholocate over water. 

Exercise .—Each student make a butter cake, using the rule for 
either u plain cake " or “ cream almond cake." (Reference No. 37, p. 
69.) The plain cake, which is the same recipe as u cup cake," may be 
varied by several students, one adding chocolate to the dough, one 
flavoring with vanilla, one with nutmeg, one adding dried fruit, one 
baking the cake in two thin layers and putting filling between them 
and on top, and one making marble cake with a little white and 
chocolate dough. 

Frosting's. 

Materials needed. —Eggs, granulated sugar, confectioners* sugar, 
milk, water, chocolate, 1 lemon, vanilla extract, almond extract, 1 
orange, cochineal or some commercial vegetable color of good quality, 
small bowls, saucepans, wooden spoons, knives, teaspoons, table¬ 
spoons, measuring cups, custard cups. 

Exercise .—Each student make a different frosting, using the rule 
given in Reference No. 37, p. 73, or one-third of the recipe for orna¬ 
mental frosting (Reference No. 34. p. 384). Make orange frosting 
(Reference No. 34, p. 385), and milk and water frostings, boiled 
frosting, chocolate frosting, and pink frosting. 


,\m: mux. 


i!i:i'i'.i!i.N(Ks. 


1. A Brief Discussion of Humuu Nutrition. Cornell Rending Course for. 
Faruiers’ Wives, ser.. No. 13. 

2. Conn I 4 ife in tin* Farm Home. Cornell Loading Courso for Fanners’ 
Wives. 3. ser.. No. 12. 

3. Food for tin* Farmers’ Family. Cornell Reading Course for Farmers’ 
Wives. 3. ser., No. -4. 

4. A Report of Investigations on the Digestihility and Nutritive Value of 
Bread. F. S. Dept. Agr., Office Kxpt. Stas. Rul. 85. 

5. Studies on Bread and Bread Making. U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Kxpt. Stas. 
Bui. (57. 

(5. Wheat Flour and Bread. Reprint from V. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook for 
1003. 

7. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, by L. II. Bailey. New York, 1000. 
s.' The Chemical Composition of American Fish! Materials. F. S. Dept. Agr., 
Office Kxpt. Stas. Bui. 28. 

0. Food and the Principles of Dietetics, >y It. Hutchison. New York, 1003. 

10. Bread and the Principles of Bread Making. F. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ 
Bui. 112. 

11. Human Food Investigations. Minnesota Kxperiment Station Bui. 54. 

12. Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of Bread and Macaroni. 
F. S. Dept. Agr., Office Kxpt. Stas. Itul. 15(5. 

13. Studies on Bread and Bread Making. F. S. Dept. Agr., Office Kxpt. Stas. 
Bui. 101. 

14. Chemistry of Wheat Flour and Bread, by William Jago. London, 188(5. 

15. Kntire Wheat Flour. Maine Kxperiment Station Bui. 103. 

lb. Flour and Bread. Cornell Reading Course for Farmers’ Wives, 4. ser.. 
No. 17. 

17. Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home, by II. W. Conn. Boston, 1003. 
is. Dust as Related to Food. Cornell Reading Course for Farmers’ Wives, 4. 
ser.. No. IS. 

10. The Selection of Food. Cornell Reading Course for Farmers’ Wives. 4. 
ser.. No. 10. 

20. Cereals and Cereal Products. F. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Chem. Bui. 13. pt. 0. 

21. ComiHisition of Prepared Cereal Foods. Wyoming Kxperiment Station 
Bill. 33. 

22. Food Nutrients—Food Kconomy. F. S. Dept. Agr., Office Kxpt. Stas. 
Clrc. 43. 

23. Functions and Fses of Food. F. S. Dept. Agr., Office Kxpt. Stas. Circ. 4(5. 

24. Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. F. S. Dept. Agr.. 
Farmers' Bui. 142. 

25. Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life, by Harry Snyder. New York, 1005. 

( 74 ) 




-<». Cereal I breakfast Foods. 1S. I >ept. Apr., Farmers’ Rul. 240. 

27. ( ereal I Ova k fast Foods. Maine Experiment Station Rul. 84. 

2s. Cereal Foods. Maine Experiment Station Bui. 118. 

20. Changes in the Composition of Corn Meal Due to the Action of Molds. 
New Jersey State Experiment Station Rpt. 1903. 

30. The Nutritive Value of Prepared Cereal Products. Connecticut Storrs 
Station Rpt. 1904, p. 210. 

31. Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery, by M. E. Williams and 
K. It. Fisher. New York, 1003. 

32. The Century Cook Rook, by Mary Ronald. New York, 1899. 

33. The Roston Cooking School Cook Rook, by Fannie Merritt Farmer. Bos¬ 
ton, 1007. 

34. The Roston Cook Book, by Mary J. Lincoln. Roston, 1907. 

35. V. heats and Flours of Aroostook County. Maine Experiment Station 
Rul. 97. 

30. Food and Diet. Reprint from U. S. Dept. Apr., Yearbook 1894. 

37. Individual Recipes in Fse at Drexel Institute, by Helen M. Spring. 
Boston, 1907. 

38. Yeast and Its Household Use, by F. C. Harrison. Ontario Agricultural 
College and Experimental Farm Rul. 118. 

39. Enzyms and Their Applications, Chap. XIV. Panary Fermentation, by 
J. Effront and S. C. Prescott. New York, 1902. 

40. Nature Study. Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm 
Bui. 124. 

41. Hay Box or Fireless Cooker. U. S. Dept. Apr., Farmers’ Rul. 296. 
(Experiment Station Work No. XLI.) 

42. Structure of the Starch Grain, by II. Kramer. American Journal of 
Pharmacy, 78 (1907). 

43. The Chemistry of Starch. Pure Products, 3 (1907), p. 354. 

44. The Chemistry of Cooking, by Mattliieu Williams. London, 1885. 

45. Digestive Ferments, with Especial Reference to the Effect of Food Pre¬ 
servatives. Journal of the Franklin Institute, 147 (Jan.-June, 1899), pp. 97 
and 9S. 

40. Gluten Foods. Maine Experiment Station Rul. 75, p. 98; Diabetic Foods. 
Connecticut State Experiment Station Rpt. 1900, p. 153. 

47. Prepared Flours. Maine Experiment Station Rul. 75, p. 1)4. 

4S. Laboratory Manual of Chemistry, by Armstrong and Norton. New 
York, 1891. 

49. Breakfast Foods: Their Chemical Composition, Digestibility, and Cost. 
Ontario Department of Agriculture Bui. 102. 

50. Food and Dietetics, by Alice I\ Norton. Chicago, 11)07. 

51. Principles of Cooking, by Anna Barrows. Chicago, 1907. 


Cl Cl 


LIST OF APPARATUS AND MATKUIAIX NKKDEI) 

[ 1‘rlcM art* retail catalogue prices, subject t«* some discount.J 


0 olmlrs 


$ 0.00 


3 or 5° kitchen tables, at $1.-5 

each_ 

1 or 8 0 smokeless burners._ 

1 refrigerator if the course is 

given in a warm season_ 

1 kitchen cupboaril_ 

1 stove with 1 or 2 ° ovens_ 

Red rubber tubing to fit gas- 
burners, j>er foot_ 

1 wire broiler_ 

2 or 4° bread boards_ 

4 bread pans_ 

1 bread box_ 

2 2-quart baking dishes_ 

8 a small bread pans 5 inches 

long by 2i inches wide by 2 

Inches high_ 

2 frames for cooling bread or 

cake_ 

2 or S fl measuring cups, gradu¬ 
ated in thirds and quarters.. 

1 can opener_ 

1 cake turner_ 

1 fine colander_ 

2-quart agate double boilers. 
1-quart agate double boilers. 

2 doughnut cutters_ 

2 biscuit cutters_ 

1 or 4" agate dish pans_ 

1 Dover egg beater_ 

1 or 4 a flour dredges_ 

1 or 4 a egg whisks_ 

1 food chopi»er_ 

2 or S a steel forks_ 

1 garbage kettle_ 

1 or 4 0 graters_ 

1 set gem pans_ 

1 griddle_ 

1 bread knife_ 

1 butcher knife_ 

2 or 8 0 case knives_ 

1 iron lemon squeezer_ 

* The larger numiter will be 


3. 75 
.25 

10.00 
13.00 
20.00 

*15 
.70 
.SO 1 
.40 
• 15 
.50 


1.10 
.50 


.20 

.05 

.10 

.20 

3. 00 

1.50 
.20 
.20 
.75 
.20 
.10 
.02 

1.50 

.20 

1.00 
.10 
.30 
.45 
.50 
.50 
.20 
. 75 . 

needed if 


1 lid lifter (if a range with lids 

be used)_ $0. 

l flour sieve_ 

1 towel roller_ 

1 “Turks head” pan- 

6 or 10° tin tea sin ions- 

3 or 8° tin tablespoons- 

1 agate teakettle_ 1. 

1 wire spoon_ 

1 2-quart covered agate sauce¬ 
pan _ 

8° 1-pint agate saucepans_ 1. 

3 or 8° soap dishes_ 

1 silver butter knife_ 1. 

3 silver tablespoons_ 2. 

12 silver knives_ 5. 

12 silver forks__ 5. 

12 silver teasjKHms __ 4. 

3 vegetable dishes for serving 

food_ 1. 

12 china plates for serving 

food_ 2 

12 china saucers for serving 

food_ 1. 

1 dozen thin glass tumblers_ 

l sugar bowl_ 

1 cream pitcher_ 

2 or 8° kitchen plates_. 

2 or 8 a 1-quart white bowls_ 

2 or 8® custard cups_ 

4 large mixing bowls_ 2. 

9 yards dish toweling (tine)_ 1. 

10 yards dish toweling(coarse) _ 1. 

2 yards heavy crash (narrow). 

2 yards heavy crash (one-half 

yard wide) _ 

18 damask napkins_ 4. 

1 yard cheese cloth_ 

12 yards roller toweling_ 2. 

1 soft broom_ 1. 

1 dustpan_ 

1 soft brush_ 

1 fiber pail _ 

each student j>erforms every exercise. 


05 

20 

25 

25 

25 

24 

50 

05 


50 
20 
60 
00 
00 
00 
00 
50 

oo 

2 . 00 

20 
50 
50 
50 
20 
20 
10 
00 
62 
50 

24 

36 
50 
05 
64 
00 

25 
25 
40 


( 76 ) 









































































t i 


1 

hand basin . 

$0. 30 

Cotton batting 

$0. 01 

1 

porcelain evaporating ilish, 


1 

pound hominy grits 

.06 


capacity 80 cubic centimeters. 

. 20 

1 

pound coarse hominy 

. 08 

1 

one-half pint glass beaker_ 

. 40 

1 

pound rolled oats_ 

. 05 

1 

30-mesh sieve 

. 25 

o 

pounds rice 

. 16 

C 

opper gauze 6 by 6 inches_ 

.os 

3 

pounds corn meal 

. 08 

l 

dozen test tubes 

. 15 

2 

pounds buckwheat flour 

. 12 

l 

flask, capacity 500 cubic een- 


*> 

pounds rye flour 

.05 


ti meters 

. 22 

1 

pound graham flour 

. 05 

l 

rubber stopper to tit flask_ 

.15 


pound gluten flour 

. 05 

l 

compound microscope, one- 


1 

pound entire-wheat flour_ 

.10 


eighth inch objective 

30. 00 

11 

24 pounds straight flour .. 

. 50 

i 

magnifying glass 

1.00 

5 

pounds lard 

. 75 

l 

dozen microscope slides 

. 10 

1 

lemon 

. 02 

l 

dozen cover slips . 

. 10 

1 

pint molasses _ 

. 06 

o 

inoculating needles 

. 05 

134 quarts whole milk, at 7 


1 

10-cubic centimeter measur- 



cents a quart 

. 1)5 


K 

K 

^*< 

w 

rn 

l 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

1 

i 

l 

l 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

. 25 

1 

pint skimmed milk . _ 

.02 

1 

small mortar and pestle . 

. 65 

1 

quart cream 

. 25 

1 

package 0-inch tilter paper_ 

. 25 

1 

pound macaroni 

. 15 

1 

glass funnel, diameter 1-15 


1 

orange 

. 03 


millimeters 

. 16 

10 notatoos 

. 05 

18 inches glass tube 

. 20 

4 

pound dried peas 

. 03. 

1 

glass rod 

. 01 

4 

pound dried beans. .. 

.03 

1 

t€ j st tube holder 

. 15 

l 

pint peanuts 

.05 

1 

confectioners’ thermometer, 


5 

pounds granulated sugar_ 

. 28 


graduated to 500° F 

3. 00 

O 

o 

pounds confectioners sugar_ 

.24 

1 

oven thermometer, graduated 


1 

cabbage 

. 05 


to 400° F _ 

3. 00 

1 

pound unsweetened chocolate 

.40 

1 

ounce hydrochloric acid 

. 10 

4 

pound cheese 

. 10 

1 

ounce concentrated nitric 


4 

ounce powdered cinnamon_ 

.05 


acid 

. 10 

l 

pound dried currants 

. 12 

1 

ounce tincture iodin 

. 10 

4 

pound raisins 

. 06 

4 

ounce amylopsin 

. 25 

i 

pound citron 

. 05 

4 

ounce pepsin 

.25 

1 

4 

pound candied orange peek 

.05 

4 

ounce pancreatin 

. 25 

i 

pound cream of tartar 

.15 

1 

pint lime water _ . 

.01 

3 

dozen eggs, at 25 cents 

. 75 

o 

ounces Folding's solution_ 

. 40 

1 

fowl 

.60 

4 

ounce acid phosphate of lime. 

.03 

1 

pound fish 

. 13 

4 

ounce ammonia alum 

. 05 

• > 

pounds beef 

.32 

1 

packing box at least 18 


1 

shin bone of beef 

. 10 


inches by 18 inches by 18 


1 

soup bone_ 

.10 


inches 

. 10 

o 

ribs mutton 

. 10 

18 inches No. 20 copper wire_ 

. 01 

4 

pound suet 

.05 

1 

box small gummed labels_ 

. 10 

4J pounds butter _ 

1.35 

8 

pencils 

•.08 

1 

loaf stale bread 

.03 

8 notebooks 

. 80 

1 

green banana 

. 02 

1 

pair large scissors 

. 75 

1 

apple 

.01 

1 

ounce rock candy 

.01 

1 

bay leaf 

.01 

1 

ounce hops 

.05 

1 

bottle almond extract 

.25 

4 

ounce cochineal or substitute. 

. 20 

2 

ounces vanilla extract . 

.25 

l 

ounce glucose 

.01 

4 

pound each of four brands of 



ounce precipitated chalk_ 

.02 


baking powder 

. 50 















































































78 


1 pomul standard brand of link* 


lug pnfte_ s<». lt. 

1 |M>und rock salt_ .01 

1 |H)uud com starch_ . 10 

1 sack of salt_ .05 

1 pound popper_ . lo 

1 ounce tapioca_ .02 

1 can tomatoes or Its equivalent 

in fresh tomatoes_ .12 

1 pint vinegar_ .03 

1 iHHind salt mackerel_ .05 


1 fiotituJ granular wheat break¬ 


fast fis mI _ . ___$0. 075 

2-1 nikes compressed yeast_ . IK 

1 package dry yeast_ .05 

4 Hikes brown soap _ .20 

1 cake sand soap or similar 

material_ . 10 

2 cakes castile soap or other 

white soap_ .20 

1 i>ouiul washing soda_ .02 


o 









> 

< 





































% 












































































library of congress 


0 012 822 251 0 , 






























